Smallholder maize farming in Bungoma County, Kenya, continues to face labour shortages, low productivity, and inefficient farm operations, increasing the need for mechanization among smallholder farmers. However, the use of agricultural machinery remains constrained by limited awareness, inadequate credit access, and financial limitations. This study examined factors influencing the use of tractors, chisel ploughs, sprayers, and sheller machines among 330 smallholder maize farmers in Bungoma County using a multivariate probit (MVP) model. The findings revealed significant complementarities among machinery use decisions, justifying the suitability of the MVP approach (Wald χ2 = 157.08, p < 0.001). Age positively influenced the use of tractors (β = 0.0369, p < 0.01) and shellers (β = 0.0272, p < 0.05), indicating that older farmers are more likely to adopt mechanization due to accumulated farming experience and financial stability. Education significantly increased the likelihood of using tractors (β = 0.3062, p < 0.01), sprayers (β = 0.3885, p < 0.01), and shellers (β = 0.2083, p < 0.10). Awareness of mechanization strongly enhanced the use of all machinery types, including tractors (β = 1.5499, p < 0.01) and shellers (β = 1.7988, p < 0.01). Cooperative membership positively affected the use of chisel ploughs (β = 0.5709, p < 0.01) and shellers (β = 0.7379, p < 0.01), while access to market information significantly increased sprayer use (β = 0.3635, p < 0.05). The study recommends strengthening extension services, cooperative-based mechanization models, and affordable credit systems to enhance mechanization uptake and improve maize productivity among smallholder farmers.
Herbicide application using drones has increased considerably worldwide because of its operational efficiency and ease of use. The objective of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two herbicide application methods, a tractor-mounted sprayer and a drone, for the control of common sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) in northern Tamaulipas, Mexico. The experiment was conducted in a fallow field in Río Bravo, Tamaulipas. Glyphosate, 2,4-D, ammonium glufosinate, and paraquat were applied at rates of 726, 574.8, 400, and 400 g a.i. ha-1, respectively, using both application methods. Weed control was evaluated using the European Weed Research Society (EWRS) scale, and spray coverage was assessed with water-sensitive paper cards. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Spray coverage with the tractor-mounted sprayer ranged from 40.8 to 53.6%, whereas drone application ranged from 1.9 to 2.6%. The tractor-mounted sprayer provided slightly greater weed control with paraquat, glyphosate, and ammonium glufosinate, whereas 2,4-D was more effective when applied by drone. Overall, both application methods achieved comparable levels of weed control, demonstrating that drone-based herbicide application is a viable alternative for pre-plant weed management. In addition to providing effective weed control, drone application offers greater operational flexibility, reduces reliance on conventional ground equipment, and has the potential to improve water-use efficiency because it requires lower spray volumes than conventional ground sprayers.
The parasitic Striga hermonthica weed causes serious yield losses to maize (Zea mays L.) in sub-Saharan Africa. Striga seeds are stimulated to germinate by strigolactones produced by the host plants. Maseno EH14 and EH11 hybrid maize varieties have been bred for Striga and foliar diseases tolerance respectively but their tolerance mechanisms have not been elucidated. The study investigated the activity and chemical composition of root exudates of the maize varieties alongside a Striga susceptible PHB3253 variety on Striga seed germination. Germination assays were carried out using crude maize root exudates alongside the synthetic GR24 stimulant. Germination frequencies and radicle lengths were analyzed using ImageJ v. 1.45. Data were subjected to ANOVA through the linear model of SAS and means were separated using LSD0.05. The root exudates were also freeze-dried and subjected to HPLC analysis. Maseno EH14 had the lowest Striga seed germination at 20.08% compared to PHB3253 at 51%, EH11 at 37.54% and GR24 at 76.96%. Maseno EH14 also had the shortest radicle length at 0.38 mm against PHB3253 at 0.82 mm, EH11 at 0.71 mm, and GR24 at 0.91 mm. HPLC analysis showed PHB3253 and Maseno EH11 exuding mainly 5-Deoxystrigol and two other compounds while EH14 had three peaks that did not correspond to any of the standard strigolactones used in the analysis. Maseno EH14 therefore exhibits tolerance to Striga hermonthica due to low stimulation of Striga seed germination, and the absence of the more stable 5-Deoxystrigol strigolactone which is commonly associated with Striga susceptibility in maize.
Cassava mosaic disease (CMD) and Cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) are the major biotic constraints that destroy cassava tuberous production, reduce cassava productivity, and negatively impact food security of households in DRC. Epidemic status of those viral diseases was evaluated in 400 cassava fields in the North-Eastern DRC. Assessment was conducted along main roads at 10 km intervals, with 30 plants evaluated per field using an X-shaped transect. The epidemiological parameters evaluated included disease incidence, severity, source of infection, whitefly abundance, and molecular incidence. In addition, foliar and stems symptoms, root necrosis were considered for CBSD diagnostic. A total of 54 cassava varieties were identified in farmers’ fields, of which only six were improved varieties; notably, these improved varieties were the most affected by CBSD. Both diseases were widespread with heavy epidemic pressure in the prospected provinces. CMD field evaluation was as follows: Bas-Uele (I:77.9%, S:3), Tshopo (I:75%, S:3), Haut-Uele (I:50.4%, S:2) and Ituri (I:30.5%, S:3). However, CBSD was prevalent in Ituri (I:23.8%, S:2), Haut-Uele (I:1.4%, S:2) and in Tshopo (I:1.3%, S:2). The PCR analysis of 140 leaf samples revealed a lower molecular incidence than that observed during field assessments. This discrepancy may reflect limitations in diagnostic sensitivity, low viral titers, or the presence of genetically diverse viral populations. No CBSD was identified by PCR in Bas-Uele Province. Whitefly density per plant was relatively high in Ituri (18) followed by Bas-Uele (9), Tshopo (7) and Haut-Uele (6). The major factor of these viral pandemics spread is the use of infected cassava planting materials. To limit this trend, an urgent reliable healthy cassava system is needed in DRC.
Reviewer acknowledgements for Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. 18, No. 9, 2026.
The study of genetic polymorphism represents a valuable tool for the selection and genetic improvement of livestock production, as it enables the identification of molecular markers favorably associated with traits of interest. This study aimed to analyze polymorphisms in three genes that determine the technological properties and physico-chemical characteristics of cow’s milk, including kappa-casein (κ-casein), beta-casein (β-casein), and beta-lactoglobulin (β-lactoglobulin). Genomic DNA extracted from 90 blood samples from Borgou cattle was used to amplify target gene fragments. PCR products were genotyped using the RFLP technique with the restriction enzymes DdeI, HindIII, and HaeIII for the β-casein, κ-casein, and β-lactoglobulin genes, respectively. Results revealed three genotypes for each locus: A1A1 (0.04), A1A2 (0.22), and A2A2 (0.74) for the C67A polymorphism of β-casein; AA (0.03), AB (0.59), and BB (0.38) for the A148C polymorphism of κ-casein; and AA (0.03), AB (0.19), and BB (0.78) for the A64G polymorphism of β-lactoglobulin. The predominant allelic frequencies A2 (0.85) for β-casein C67A, B (0.67) for κ-casein A148C, and B (0.87) for β-lactoglobulin A64G suggest that this cattle breed harbors underexploited genetic potential. Given the benefits associated with these alleles, it would be appropriate to conduct further studies on a larger sample, including a correlation analysis with milk technological and cheese-making properties, to use them in marker-assisted selection to improve milk production in Benin.
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a key staple in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), yet the diversity of farmer-maintained cultivars remains insufficiently documented, particularly in the southwest. This study assessed the morphological diversity and population structure of cassava cultivars collected from farmers’ fields in this region. A survey was conducted in 112 fields across Kinshasa, Kongo Central, and Mai-Ndombe, where 220 cultivars were recorded. Characterization relied on nine qualitative descriptors from standard cassava lists, complemented by altitude and whitefly abundance. Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) was used to explore phenotypic variability, followed by Hierarchical Ascending Classification (HAC) to group cultivars based on similarity. Discriminant Factor Analysis (DFA) evaluated the robustness of the classification. The first five MCA dimensions explained 42.9% of total variation. Leaf pigmentation, petiole colour, plant age, and cassava mosaic disease severity were the main discriminating traits. HAC identified seven phenotypic groups of unequal size, indicating substantial diversity within the population. DFA showed high classification accuracy (94.1%), confirmed by Leave-One-Out cross-validation (92.3%). Overall, the results reveal significant phenotypic variability in cassava cultivated in southwestern DRC and emphasize its importance for breeding programs aimed at enhancing disease resistance, productivity, and adaptation to local environmental conditions. These findings provide a valuable baseline for conservation and genetic improvement efforts and highlight the need for integrating farmer knowledge with formal breeding strategies. Future research should incorporate molecular markers to better resolve genetic relationships and support the development of resilient, high-yielding cultivars adapted to diverse agroecological conditions in practice.
The neotropical green-belly stink bug, Diceraeus melacanthus (Dallas, 1851), is considered a major pest of maize and wheat production systems in South America, particularly under no-tillage systems and soybean–maize crop succession. Given the influence of climate change on arthropod development, this study aimed to characterize the effect of five constant temperatures (16, 21, 26, 31, and 36 °C) on the morphometrics and weight variations of D. melacanthus across all developmental phases. The experiment was conducted under controlled laboratory conditions ((14:10 h L:D photoperiod; 65±15% relative humidity) using a completely randomized design. Morphometric parameters, including total body length, pronotum width, abdomen width, rostrum length, and humeral angle length, were measured alongside fresh weight (mg). Results indicated that the thermal range of 26-31 °C represents the physiological optimum, promoting maximum growth and biomass accumulation, with adults reaching a significantly higher mean weight (67.9 mg) at 31 °C. Conversely, temperatures of 21 °C and 36 °C acted as limiting factors, significantly reducing abdominal width and humeral angle development, particularly in the fourth and fifth instars. Individuals reared under laboratory conditions exhibited larger morphometric values than those previously reported for field populations, likely due to the high-quality, diversified diet provided. The high phenotypic plasticity exhibited across the 16-36 °C gradient underscores the resilience of D. melacanthus to climatic fluctuations, enabling its year-round persistence in agricultural fields. These findings provide essential biological parameters for improving population growth models and strengthening Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies under future climate scenarios.
Alternaria diseases, caused by Alternaria solani (Early Blight) and A. alternata (Brown Spot), threaten potato production globally. This study quantified the epidemiological patterns of the diseases, climate-disease interactions, transmission dynamics, and economic impacts across three climatically different zones of Eritrea (Adi Keih, Asmara, and Halhale) during the 2025 growing season. A randomized complete block design with four treatments of different pathogen inoculation times, with three replications, was used. Disease assessments were conducted at five crop development stages. Apparent infection rate, area under disease progress curve (AUDPC), ANOVA, Pearson correlation, and linear regression were used for statistical analysis. Asmara exhibited high disease risk with Early Blight severity of 4.19 and Brown Spot severity of 3.13, with 100% incidence and the highest transmission rates (0.122/day for Early Blight, 0.108/day for Brown Spot). Moderate humidity (54.1%) combined with warmer temperature (19.2 °C) was found to be conducive. Across all places, the disease progressed rapidly between 30 and 45 days after planting. Negative correlations between transmission efficiency and yield were observed for both diseases. Yield losses reached 42% (13 t/ha) in high transmission environments, which is approximately Eritrean Nakfa (ERN) 130,000/ha (USD 8,667/ha) in economic losses. Inoculation timing did not affect AUDPC values, indicating that environmental factors outweigh pathogen incidence timing. Our findings indicate that moderate humidity (54-58%) coupled with warmer temperatures (19-20 °C) create ideal conditions for disease transmission, adding a scientific basis for understanding Alternaria epidemiology. The critical crop age period of 30-45 days after planting represents the highest vulnerability window requiring intensive monitoring. These findings, while based on a single growing season, provide a foundation for multi-year validation across broader geographic scales. Our study supports the development of site-specific, climate-informed, and economically optimized integrated disease management strategies that can help farmers achieve sustainable potato production in the face of changing climate conditions.
Reviewer acknowledgements for Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. 18, No. 7, 2026.
This study focuses on the assessment of the severity and incidence of African Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) in the western Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) to assess the status of CMD and determine viral strains responsible for the disease. Epidemiological surveys were conducted in western DRC (former provincial configuration) from 2016 to 2017 following the standard protocol adopted Central and West African Virus Epidemiology (WAVE) programme. A total of 292 cassava leaf samples, exhibiting CMD symptoms and asymptomatic characteristics, were collected from 146 fields distributed across five provinces (Equateur, Kasaï-Oriental, Kinshasa, Bas-Congo and Bandundu). The mean rate incidence and mean severity in the field were 31.4% and 3, respectively; indicating that the Province was highly infected with CMD. In all provinces, infections transmitted by cuttings were more frequent.common. Molecular PCR analyses revealed an overall infection rate of 89.73%, with the detection of ACMV, EACMV, as well as other unidentified Begomoviruses. Mixed infections (ACMV+EACMV) and virus detected and not identified, were also observed. Results indicate a significant predominance of ACMV with a variable distribution across different areas. The detection of unidentified viruses in several samples suggests the presence of variants that are still poorly characterised; requiring further sequencing studies. These results highlight the importance of large scale distribution and promotion programs for CMD resistant plant materiel in these provinces.
Canada’s agrifood sector is significant within the economy, contributing over 2.3 million jobs along with $144 billion annually in GDP. Expansion of the farmland base since European settlement has provided an abundance of land, but there are concerns about the ecological cost of continued expansion. Using a wetland conservation cost model with spatially explicit dimensions, this research estimates the economic benefits of wetland drainage in a sub-basin of the Assiniboine West Watershed District in Manitoba, concluding that soil productivity and commodity prices significantly affect decisions to drain wetlands. Options for optimal policy based upon specific ecosystem value are outlined, and policy costs are estimated.
Diflufenican is a selective phenyl ether herbicide belonging to WSSA Group 12 Limited information is available regarding its efficacy, crop safety, and interaction with metribuzin when applied preemergence (PRE) in soybean under Ontario growing conditions. Field experiments were conducted in 2018 and 2019 across three environments in southwestern Ontario, Canada, to evaluate soybean tolerance and weed control with preemergence (PRE) applications of diflufenican, metribuzin, and their combinations. Treatments included metribuzin (150, 200, and 300 g ai ha-1), diflufenican (60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 150, and 180 g ai ha-1), and diflufenican plus metribuzin (1:2 ratio) mixtures (225, 300, and 450 g ai ha-1) applied PRE. Soybean injury was ≤ 8% at 1 and 2 weeks after emergence (WAE) for all treatments. Soybean injury was not observed beyond 2 WAE. Metribuzin applied PRE controlled Powell amaranth (13-97%), redroot pigweed (30-38%), common ragweed (0-38%), common lambsquarters (11-35%), flower-of-an-hour (0-33%), ladysthumb (0-87%), common purslane (5-87%), and wild mustard (25-33%) at 8 WAA and controlled barnyardgrass (14-66%) and green foxtail (14-65%) at 2 WAA. Diflufenican applied PRE controlled Powell amaranth (52-100%), redroot pigweed (35-100%) common ragweed (0-11%), common lambsquarters (0-13%), flower-of-an-hour (0-85%), ladysthumb (≤0-13%), common purslane (10-87%), and wild mustard (47-99%) at 8 WAA and barnyardgrass (0-20%) and green foxtail (0-20%) at 2 WAA. Diflufenican plus metribuzin mixtures applied PRE provided broader and more consistent control, including Powell amaranth (72-89%), redroot pigweed (71-100%), common ragweed (8-43%), common lambsquarters (26-54%), flower-of-an-hour (31-97%), ladysthumb (16-76%), common purslane (46-94%), and wild mustard (56-99%) at 8 WAA and barnyardgrass (10-69%) and green foxtail (11-68%) at 2 WAA. Observed responses were generally additive, with minor antagonistic or synergistic interactions for specific species at specific rating timings. Results indicate that diflufenican has activity on Powell amaranth, redroot pigweed and wild mustard. Diflufenican combined with metribuzin improved the spectrum and level of weeds controlled. Diflufenican co-applied with metribuzin is a safe and effective PRE option for control of some weed species in soybean.
Sorghum is a cereal crop traditionally grown under rainfed conditions in sub-Saharan Africa. In the context of climate change, its production is increasingly jeopardized. Growing this crop during the dry season under irrigation is being explored as an innovative approach to enhance farmers’ climate resilience. A field experiment conducted at a Technology and Innovation Park (TIP) established at the headquarters of the Institut Tchadien de Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (ITRAD), located between 14°57.6ʹ and 15°2.4ʹ North latitude and 12°4.8ʹ and 12°9.6ʹ East longitude, using the rainfed sorghum variety S35, provided key insights into this concern. A preliminary soil fertility assessment was carried out, and integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) techniques were applied throughout the experiment. The objective of this study is to demonstrate that, in the context of climate change, farmers can improve their resilience by cultivating rainfed sorghum varieties under irrigation during the dry season. Analysis of variance of the results obtained showed that, under such conditions, the S35 sorghum variety nearly tripled its rainfed yield (5.82 t·ha-1, compared to 2 t·ha-1). The study highlights that access to agricultural water is essential for farmers seeking to strengthen their climate resilience. Cultivating sorghum under irrigation also represents an innovation for optimizing the use of hydro-agricultural infrastructure, which is generally reserved for rice and market gardening.
Reviewer acknowledgements for Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. 18, No. 5, 2026.
Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.] is a climate-resilient and nutrient-dense legume with limited genetic improvement in Kenya due to the absence of efficient in vitro regeneration systems. This study evaluated regeneration responses of two Kenyan landraces, Cream with Black Eye and Yellow with White Eye, using different explant sources and plant growth regulator regimes. Callus induction was achieved in all explants, with frequencies reaching 100% under 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 50-100% under naphthaleneacetic acid. Direct shoot regeneration from embryo axes cultured on Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 0.25 mg/L 6-benzylaminopurine produced the highest proliferation, yielding mean shoot numbers of 34.8 and 37.2 per explant in the two landraces. No shoot regeneration was observed from callus under any treatment. Rooting frequency reached 80-93% at 0.2 mg/L indole-3-butyric acid. Direct organogenesis proved more reliable than callus-mediated regeneration. These findings establish a reproducible regeneration protocol for Kenyan Bambara groundnut and provide a basis for propagation and future biotechnological applications.
Reviewer acknowledgements for Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. 18, No. 6, 2026.
Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) is one of the most damaging viral diseases affecting rice production in sub-Saharan Africa. In Benin, lowland rice systems play a key role in national food security but remain highly vulnerable to biotic constraints, including viral diseases. This study assessed the distribution and prevalence of RYMV in major lowland rice-growing areas of Benin while documenting farmers’ perceptions of disease occurrence, yield losses, and management practices. Field surveys and farmer interviews were conducted in eight districts between September and October 2017. Disease incidence and severity were assessed through field inspections and confirmed using ACP-ELISA. A total of 102 farmers from 21 villages were interviewed using structured questionnaires. Results showed that RYMV was present in all surveyed districts except Dassa, with significant spatial variation in prevalence (p < 0.05). Most infected fields exhibited moderate disease severity, and farmers estimated yield losses ranging from 50% to 100% depending on the stage of infection. Management practices mainly relied on fertilizer application and chemical insecticides, while limited use of improved varieties was reported. Farmers identified limited access to inputs, soil fertility decline, and diseases as major constraints to lowland rice production. Although IR841 was the most widely cultivated variety, its apparent tolerance should not be interpreted as confirmed resistance. The study highlights the continued importance of RYMV in Benin and underscores the need for integrated disease management strategies combining resistant varieties, improved agronomic practices, and strengthened extension services.
Agricultural mechanization is widely regarded as a critical pathway for improving smallholder productivity, reducing labour bottlenecks, and enhancing the efficiency of agri-food systems in the Global South. Recent reviews show that mechanization can support sustainable transformation, but its uptake remains highly uneven because adoption is shaped by farm size, purchasing power, service markets, and institutional access rather than machinery availability alone. In Kenya, rice is a strategic food and commercial crop, yet mechanization among smallholder rice farmers remains partial across key operations such as land preparation, irrigation, and harvesting. This study examined factors influencing the adoption of mechanization among smallholder rice producers in Mwea Irrigation Scheme, Kenya. Using cross-sectional survey data from 384 households, the study employed descriptive statistics and a multivariate probit model to analyze three interrelated adoption decisions: tractor use, mechanized irrigation, and mechanized harvesting. Results showed that mechanization choices were positively correlated, confirming complementarity across technologies. Gender significantly influenced tractor use and mechanized harvesting, while education positively affected tractor uses and mechanized irrigation. Household income and access to credit increased the likelihood of adopting tractor use and mechanized irrigation. Group membership was important for mechanized irrigation, whereas rice farming experience and land size significantly influenced mechanized harvesting. The findings indicate that mechanization adoption in smallholder rice systems is simultaneously shaped by socio-economic characteristics, institutional support, and farm structure. The study concludes that inclusive mechanization policy in Kenya should strengthen extension, credit access, service markets, farmer organizations, and gender-responsive support if mechanization is to contribute meaningfully to rice sector transformation. Empirical data and model results are drawn from the attached study results.
Johnsongrass is one of the most difficult weeds to control due to its ability to regenerate from underground rhizomes. Johnsongrass has been a problematic weed for years in row crops in Mississippi. It can severely reduce yields in corn, cotton, soybean, and other row cropping systems. Two separate field studies were conducted in 2023 at the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, Mississippi to evaluate the effectiveness of clethodim, glufosinate, and glyphosate applied alone or tank-mixed with residual herbicides for johnsongrass rhizomes and seedlings control. No crops were included in this study, as it was carried out under non‑crop conditions. The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design with 12 herbicide treatments and three replications in a natural johnsongrass population (rhizomes and seedlings). Herbicide treatments included clethodim, glyphosate, and glufosinate applied alone or tank‑mixed with the residual herbicides brake, boundary, or acuron for control of johnsongrass rhizomes and seedlings. Johnsongrass shoot control from the application of clethodim alone was 83% four-weeks after application. Antagonism occurred when boundary or acuron were mixed with clethodim which reduced aboveground biomass control. Both glyphosate and glufosinate, whether applied alone or with residual herbicides, maintained excellent shoot control (>96%) with no evidence of antagonism. Four weeks after application, the entire test area was mowed down (after final johnsongrass evaluation) for possible johnsongrass regrowth. Johnsongrass regrowth was observed following all treatments except the glyphosate application. The residual herbicides brake, boundary, and acuron did not improve clethodim or glufosinate performance in preventing johnsongrass regrowth from rhizomes. Glyphosate alone or tank-mixed with residual herbicides were the only treatments that provided 100% of johnsongrass control with no-regrowth.
