Introduction: Stunting is the symptom of the chronic undernutrition that disturbs child growth and development and has long-term health and productivity implications. Prevalence of stunting in Indonesia in 2024 was 19.8% which is below the national target of 14%. It is especially the rural households whose access to safe drinking water and sanitation is limited. This study evaluated risk factors in at-risk families in rural Kubu Raya Regency and generated predictive model of stunting. Methods: Matched case-control design was performed, with 100 cases (height-for-age < -2 SD) and 100 controls (height-for-age -2 SD to +3 SD). The sampling was done by total sampling. Data was collected through interviews and observations through standardized means. The predictors and predictive model were determined using logistic regression. Results and Discussion: Four variables emerged as significant predictors; unsafe drinking water source (OR = 4.6; 95% CI: 1.84-11.82), inadequate latrine ownership (OR = 3.4; 95% CI: 1.69-6.87), birth intervals < 24 months (OR = 5.3; 95% CI: 2.16-13.36), and having > 2 children (OR = 5.5; 95% CI: 1.66-18.14). The model had a 80.7% accuracy, 84% sensitivity and 64% specificity. Conclusion: Poor sources of drinking water and latrines ownership were key predictors of stunting in children aged between 6-23 months of age in at-risk families in Kubu Raya Regency. These indicators were incorporated into a predictive model that had a good discriminatory performance, thus it was possible to utilize it as a useful tool to risk early stunting in rural areas that could be effectively used.
Introduction: Urban riverbanks in developing countries are being converted into densely populated settlements with minimal sanitation. Limited safe sanitation infrastructure accelerates the decline in water quality. Health risks increase for communities that use river water. Methods: Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) combined with field-based environmental sanitation assessment was used to determine priority strategies. A household survey was conducted with 200 respondents. Observations were made at five observation point. Focus Group Discussions (FGD) with various parties were conducted to support decision-making. Three main criteria consisting of environmental sustainability, cost efficiency, and social support were used for assessment. Individual septic tanks, expansion of communal wastewater treatment plant coverage, implementation of constructed wetlands, and strengthening of community education were the alternative strategies used. Results and Discussion: Cost-effectiveness was the most influential criterion (0.437), followed by sustainability (0.369) and social support (0.195) in the AHP analysis. Public education ranks highest as a mitigation strategy because it plays an important role in encouraging behavioral change, improving sanitation facility maintenance, strengthening institutional involvement, and requiring minimal costs. Integrating the AHP results with field sanitation conditions reveals several major problems, such as poor septic tank maintenance, limitations on communal IPAL, and high rates of direct discharge into rivers. Conclusion: Structured and sustainable public education is a key strategy in domestic wastewater management in urban river areas. Increased public awareness and behavior, supported by technical and institutional interventions, are essential foundations for formulating effective, efficient, and sustainable sanitation policies at the local level.
Introduction: Air pollution causes a wide range of health problems, particularly among vulnerable populations such as children. Exposure to air pollution may impair respiratory function during early infancy, a critical period of lung growth. This systematic review synthesises observational studies to assess how prenatal and postnatal air pollution exposure affects lung development and function in early childhood. Discussion: This systematic literature review summarises observational studies published over past 20 years in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. PubMed, Scopus, and Semantic Scholar were used to identify relevant literature examining the effects of air pollution exposure from the prenatal period to eight years of age on early childhood respiratory development. Exposure to air pollutants such as PM2.5, NO2, and O3 has been associated with reduced lung function and an increased risk of asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The strongest effects appear to occur during the prenatal period and early postnatal life. Oxidative damage, systemic inflammation, and airway epithelial dysfunction are some of the main causes. Conclusion: Air pollution, particularly tobacco smoke, adversely affects lung development in children. Higher levels of exposure are associated with reduced lung function and an increased risk of respiratory diseases.
Introduction: Dengue fever is a climate-sensitive vector-borne disease. While many studies have documented associations between climate variables and dengue incidence, most rely on conventional regression approaches that fail to separate direct and indirect climatic pathways, limiting mechanistic understanding and utility for environmental health. This study aims to elucidate the interconnected effects of climatic variability on dengue incidence in Surabaya. This study integrates seasonal time-series decomposition and path analysis to distinguish direct and indirect climatic pathways, sunlight duration and wind speed. Methods: A retrospective ecological design, monthly dengue incidence data from 2020 to 2024 were integrated with meteorological variables, including rainfall, temperature, humidity, sunlight duration, and wind speed. Seasonal time-series decomposition was applied to characterize temporal dynamics, followed by path analysis within a structural equation modeling framework to quantify direct and indirect climatic effects. Results and Discussion: A pronounced seasonal pattern in dengue incidence, with peaks during the rainy season. Maximum temperature, relative humidity, sunlight duration, and minimum wind speed exerted significant direct effects on dengue incidence (p < 0.05). Rainfall showed no direct association but acted as a key upstream driver influencing other climatic variables. The structural model explained 52.1% of the variance in dengue incidence, highlighting the contribution of interconnected climatic processes. Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that dengue dynamics in tropical metropolitan environments are governed by complex climate-mediated pathways rather than isolated climatic predictors. This study novel environmental epidemiological evidence to support climate-informed dengue early warning systems and adaptive vector control strategies under climate variability and urban environmental change.
Introduction: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has been recognized as an emerging concern in rivers that receive domestic wastewater, serving as reservoirs for antibiotic-resistant bacteria. As home to 15 million people, the Brantas River has limited data on environmental AMR patterns. This study aimed to describe the link between community practices and AMR patterns in the upper Brantas. Methods: This cross-sectional study assessed resistance patterns in the upper Brantas River by comparing two sites based on population density differences. Fifty respondents from households adjacent to the river were interviewed regarding sanitation practices and antibiotic use. Water samples were analyzed for domestic wastewater. Sixteen coliform isolates were tested for antimicrobial resistance using six antibiotics from different classes. Resistance was quantified using the multiple antibiotic resistance index (MARI) and compared between sites. Results and Discussion: Unlike the upstream community, the mid-reach area had limited sanitation facilities, resulting in river-based sanitation as a common practice. Both sites exhibited a similar pattern of antibiotic use, with > 70% of respondents engaged in inappropriate consumption. Although antibiotic residues were not detected at either site, coliform and resistance loads were higher in the mid-reach. Overall, both sites demonstrated MARI values > 0.2, indicating sustained selective pressure for resistance. Conclusion: Elevated MARI values were observed at both sites without detectable antibiotic residues. Resistance levels were higher at the mid-reach site, where sanitation access was limited and inappropriate antibiotic use was common. These findings underline the position of considering sanitation conditions and antibiotic use practices in environmental health surveillance.
Introduction: Microplastics are found in the oceans and have contaminated fish. Based on these conditions, fish in the sea have experienced a decrease in nutrition, which has the potential to affect human health if consumed; for example, this can lead to stunting in toddlers. The purpose of this study was to identify and examine the presence of microplastics in food and feces of toddlers in the coastal area of Jember Regency. Methods: This observational study used a cross-sectional design and purposively selected 10 toddlers. A questionnaire survey was conducted to collect data on microplastic contamination. Breast milk and feces samples were collected and tested in the laboratory using density separation, membrane filtration, and microscopic observation methods, which were then analyzed descriptively. Results and Discussion: All samples of breast milk and toddler feces have tested positive for contamination by microplastics, with the majority in the form of fibers (mean value 4,8 particles/5 mL; 19,9 particles/5 g) and filaments (mean value 3,7 particles/5 mL; 6,8 particles/5 g). Several factors allow for the presence of microplastic contaminants in the two specimens, including the low processing of single-use plastic waste, consumption patterns of people to consume processed seafood, hot food in plastic containers, and bottled drinking water. Conclusion: Even though microplastic contaminants have been found in breast milk, not giving breast milk to toddlers is not the right solution. Reduce microplastic contamination in the environment by limiting the use of single-use plastics and sustainably processing plastic waste to prevent microplastic exposure in toddlers.
Introduction: Lead in breast milk could be damaging to an infant’s growth, and communities near Mount Merapi might contain heavy metals from the volcano’s activity. However, lead contamination of breast milk remain unexplored. So, this study aimed to find what things affect the amount of lead in the breast milk of mothers living in areas with volcanic risk. Methods: A survey of 129 randomly selected breastfeeding mothers from volcanic hazard zones I, II, and III. We measured lead in breast milk using ICP-MS. We gathered data on possible exposures with interviews and used generalized estimating equations for the analysis. Results and Discussion: Zone I had the most at 10.85 ppb, then Zone II at 6.38 ppb, and Zone III at 1.39 ppb. Mothers in the hazard zones generally had a lot more lead in their breast milk (Exp(B) = 9.798; p < 0.001). Higher levels were also clearly linked to mothers who smoked (Exp(B) = 211; p < 0.001). There was a clear rise in concentrations with the mother’s age; each additional year of age went with a 1.32x increase (p = 0.041). Mothers in high-risk jobs had less lead in their milk (Exp(B) = 0.04; p = 0.004). Lead levels didn’t clearly relate to the water supply, cosmetics, or exposure to other people’s smoke (p > 0.05). Conclusion: a mother’s age and if she smokes change the lead amount in her breast milk, and the lead goes up the closer a mother lives to a volcanic hazard.
Introduction: Informal waste pickers are the frontliners in solid waste management worldwide; however, they lack basic safety nets for their social and economic protection. They are often involved in hazardous work but receive no health protection. Economically, they earn at least a meager dollar per day. This study aimed to present the trends and practices in waste management, contribution, and integration into the formal sector among waste pickers. Discussion: Circular economy and waste management were the most frequent keywords in the review. Customer behavior, stakeholder analysis, and source separation are emerging themes in waste management. Network visualization supports the bibliometric results regarding the contribution of waste pickers to sustainable cities and recycling. Notably, waste pickers have longer nodes connecting to SDGs, indicating a lesser connection. In addition, policymakers should prioritize interventions at the strongest connecting points, particularly addressing the impact of pollution on human health, managing e-waste, and supporting formal waste management systems. Conclusion: In this review, the term circular economy is increasing as part of waste management approaches, and other practices, such as anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis. Most studies were conducted in developed countries. Waste picking has been a significant source of income among waste pickers. Hence, formal integration of informal waste pickers into the formal waste management sector appears favorable, but further research is needed regarding their acceptability and contribution to sustainable development.
Introduction: Kenjeran Sub-district in Surabaya has a considerable number of DR-TB patients, but the local contributing factors are not well understood. This research was conducted to analyze the host and environmental risk factors related to DR-TB incidence in this region. Methods: This research was an observational analytic case-control study conducted in Kenjeran Sub-district. A total of 48 respondents were sampled, consisting of 16 DR-TB patients (cases) and 32 non-DR-TB patients (controls) in a 1:2 ratio. The data of sex, age, education, employment status, income, contact with DR-TB, Diabetes Mellitus (DM), smoking, previous treatment, treatment compliance, and occupancy density were gathered using a questionnaire and medical records. Bivariate analysis was carried out using the Chi-square or Fisher exact test. Results and Discussion: Diabetes Mellitus (DM) was the sole condition that was substantially linked to the incidence of DR-TB, according to bivariate analysis (p = 0.021; OR 5.571, 95% CI 1.476–21.024). There was no statistically significant correlation found between other risk factors such housing density, contact history, treatment adherence, and prior treatment history. Conclusion: DM was found to be a substantial major risk factor for DR-TB, fulfilling the study's primary goal. Screening and treating TB patients with diabetes mellitus should be the top priorities of control initiatives. Future studies with a bigger sample size are required to corroborate these findings because the lack of relationship with other parameters suggests methodological constraints.
Introduction: The potential for accumulation of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) within the human body is a multifaceted phenomenon that can occur through various routes, including ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact. Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Mining (ASGM) worker can result in exposure to toxic elements and lead to their accumulation in the human body. Methods: This study took place in 5 mining and 2 control areas in Gorontalo Province, Indonesia. The hair samples were taken from 93 respondents. The hair samples were analyzed using a mercury analyzer to detect total mercury, along with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP- MS) to determine the levels of other elements. We also calculate the results used Hazard Quotient to screen potential hazardous elements. Results and Discussion: Concentrations of PTEs in hair varied widely, especially for THg, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Mn. HQ calculations comparing mean concentrations with reference values showed that arsenic had the highest HQ (24.2), corresponding to a high potential health risk. Arsenic indicated by the highest HQ value; arsenic was identified as the most significant element. Furthermore, the analysis revealed that miners exhibited the most variability. Conclusion: These findings highlight the usefulness of hair analysis as a biomonitoring tool for evaluating long-term exposure to PTEs in ASGM-affected communities.
Introduction: Diarrhea remains a major global health problem; however, evidence linking waste generation, population growth, sociodemographic factors, and water quality to diarrhea incidence at the local level is still limited. This study aimed to analyze these associations in Glagaharum Village, Porong Subdistrict, Sidoarjo. Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted using primary and secondary data. A purposive sampling technique was applied to select households based on predefined criteria. Data were collected through questionnaires and water sampling. Water quality was analyzed using physical parameters (TDS, turbidity, and color) and microbiological parameters (total coliform). Data were analyzed descriptively and using correlation tests. Results and Discussion: A strong positive correlation (r = 0.90) was found between population growth and waste generation. The highest waste generation occurred in 2020. Most mothers had higher education (63%) and were not employed (37%). Physical water quality parameters exceeded standards (TDS 665 mg/L; turbidity 10.6 NTU; color 131.5 TCU). Total coliform was 17 CFU/100 mL, indicating microbiological contamination. Conclusion: Population growth and waste generation are strongly associated and may contribute to diarrhea incidence. Poor water quality, particularly microbiological contamination, is a potential risk factor. Although most mothers had higher education, variations in employment status and other sociodemographic factors may influence hygiene practices and disease risk.
Introduction: Recently micro and mesoplastic pollution has increased attention regarding food safety issues as they are present in marine organisms. However, limited studies reported this contamination in processed seafood products. This study aimed to investigate the micro and mesoplastic in 25 brands. The particles were inspected for their physical and chemical characteristics, including size, shape, colour, and polymer composition. Methods: Seventy-five canned sardines’ samples (n = 75) were purchased and analyzed. Density separation was used to extract micro and mesoplastics followed by stereoscopic microscope. Physical characteristics (size, shape and colour) were recorded while polymer type determined using Fourier Transform Infra-red (FTIR) Spectroscopy. Results and Discussion: A total of nine plastic particles were recovered from all analyzed subsamples, indicating low-level occurrence. Plastic particles were detected in eight of the 25 brands, with no more than two particles observed in any single brand. The main polymer types detected were Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyethylene (PE). Detected plastic particles were in colours of red, yellow, transparent, green, black and purple. Based on morphology micro and mesoplastic were categorized into fragments, fibres, films and spheres with fragments being the main shape. Conclusion: This study confirms the occurrence of micro and mesoplastics in canned sardines, albeit at relatively low levels. The findings provide baseline data for assessing dietary exposure and emphasize the need for further investigation across the seafood processing chain.
Introduction: Urban air pollution is an increasing environmental health issue in fast developing cities such as Denpasar, Bali. Although the overall air quality is generally considered moderate, there could be local variations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) as a result of traffic density, population distribution and tourism related activities. The aim of this study was to describe the spatio-temporal characteristics of PM2.5 concentrations in urban Denpasar. Methods: A descriptive observational study was conducted at five sites representing residential areas, transportation corridors and tourism zones. PM2.5 concentration was measured three times per day (8:00, 13:00 and 18:00) using a portable air quality sensor from April to July 2024. Temporal averages were calculated using the arithmetic mean method and spatial distribution was mapped using inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation in ArcGIS. The agreement between arithmetic averages and IDW estimates was evaluated by R² and RMSE. Results and Discussion: PM2.5 concentrations showed clear temporal variability with the highest values in the morning. The average concentration in the morning was 24.63 μg/m3 which was higher than the daily guideline value of the World Health Organization (WHO), while the afternoon concentrations were lower. The inverse distance weighting (IDW) interpolation method showed a high correlation with the arithmetic mean values (R2 = 0.99) indicating reliable spatial representation. Conclusion: The concentrations of PM2.5 in Denpasar were highly variable temporally and spatially concentrated in certain locations. These results highlight the need for local air quality monitoring, to improve understanding of the spatial variability in the urban environment.
Introduction: Islamic boarding schools needs to take the conditions of the environment into consideration. The standardization of a healthy environment is still neglected in some Islamic boarding schools. This study serves an overview of the importance of evaluating indoor air quality in Islamic boarding school environments. It is in line with the Government Regulation Number 28 of 2024 regulating Environmental Health governance. Methods: A non-experimental quantitative survey-based design is used to systematically assess the indoor environmental health conditions in dormitories. Temperature, lighting-intensity, relative-humidity, ventilation-rate, and particulate-matter-concentrations (PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅) based on EHQS became environmental variables. Four Islamic boarding schools representing different environmental and infrastructural characteristics Darul Muttaqien, Nur Azkia (Bogor), Al Amanah Al-Gontory, and Jam’iyyah Islamiyyah (South Tangerang) were the places where the study was conducted. It was based on The Ministry of Religious Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia in 2023 information stating that West Java ranks first in terms of the number of Islamic boarding schools. Results and Discussion: Every Islamic boarding school environment had different environmental quality characteristics. The measurement of temperature, humidity, PM10, and PM2,5 was found not to be in EHQS. Meanwhile, lighting, humidity in one of the boarding schools and the ventilation rate in the boarding schools fulfilled the requirement stipulated by the regulation. Conclusion: The quality of indoor air in Islamic boarding schools associated with the requirements stipulated in Government Regulation No. 28/2024 concerning Environmental Health showed that not all rooms met the standards of the environmental health quality.
Introduction: Aerosols from electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) comprise a complex amalgamation of environmental pollutants produced during the thermal heating of e-liquid constituents. This aerosol composition comprises reactive carbonyl compounds, volatile organic compounds, and particulate matter that may be breathed into the respiratory system, potentially eliciting toxicological reactions in lung tissue. This study aims to assess the toxicological impact of e-cigarette aerosol exposure on lung tissue in mice by analyzing oxidative stress markers, inflammatory mediators, indications of extracellular matrix remodeling, and histological changes. Methods: Male mice were subjected to e-cigarette aerosol exposure for 3, 6, and 9 weeks, with an unexposed group acting as the control. Lung tissue samples were analyzed for superoxide dismutase, malondialdehyde, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, matrix metalloproteinase-9, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1. The aerosol's environmental properties were evaluated by detecting quantities of formaldehyde, total volatile organic compounds, particulate matter (PM2.5), and PM10 during exposure. Results and Discussion: The findings substantiate a biologically credible mechanism whereby aerosol-induced oxidative stress, via NF-κB signaling, initiates early inflammatory activation (elevated TNF-α), advances to oxidative imbalance (SOD depletion and heightened MDA), and ultimately results in extracellular matrix remodeling (increased MMP-9/TIMP-1 ratio) and alveolar wall thickening with extended exposure. These responses correspond with processes documented in traditional cigarette smoke and ambient air pollution research, possessing translational significance for chronic indoor secondhand aerosol exposure in humans. Conclusion: Continuous inhalation of e-cigarette aerosols promotes oxidative stress, inflammatory activation, extracellular matrix remodeling, and structural lung changes, underscoring possible respiratory hazards linked to sub chronic environmental exposure.
Introduction: There is a growing concern of food contamination in fresh produce due to the potential presence of microplastics in fruits such as guava, banana, and apple. The microplastics pathway into the fruits remains poorly understood, which may lead to food safety issues and potential health risks. This study investigates the abundance and characteristics of microplastics and their potential health risks in guava, banana, and apple. Methods: Microplastics were quantified and characterized based on size, color, shape and polymer composition in fruit samples purchased from supermarkets in Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia and analyzed using stereomicroscopy and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Results and Discussion: Results showed that there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the abundance of microplastics across the fruit samples. The microplastics particles were equally distributed. Stereomicroscopic observation revealed that fiber-shaped microplastics in transparent/white color were the most commonly found with ranging size up to 4.20 mm. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy determined the polymer type contained in fruit samples and discovered polyacetylene as the dominant polymer type. The potential health risk result indicates that apples may contribute to a higher accumulation of microplastics in the human body due to their higher concentration compared to other fruits. Conclusion: The findings demonstrate that most commonly consumed fruits may potentially source of microplastic to human through daily intake. This study provides important baseline evidence for dietary microplastic exposure and underscores the need for improved food safety monitoring and further investigation into long-term health risks.
Introduction: Stunting remains a major public health problem in coastal Indonesia. Small islands in the Spermonde Archipelago rely on shallow wells vulnerable to contamination. These conditions increase exposure to Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), and Chromium (Cr), while evidence linking long-term exposure and stunting in small island settings remains limited. This study assessed health risks of Pb, Cd, and Cr using Environmental Health Risk Assessment (EHRA) with long-term projection and examined their association with stunting. Methods: An analytical observational study was conducted in Sabutung, Saugi, and Tanakeke Islands. A total of 110 toddlers (0–59 months) and 10 wells were selected using proportional sampling within each island. Heavy metals were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) based on SNI 6989 standards. EHRA and Chi-square tests were applied, with risk projection under four scenarios over 30 years (to 2055). Results and Discussion: Pb ranged from 0.0035–0.0060 mg/L, while Cd (0.0012 mg/L) and Cr (0.008 mg/L) were reported at uniform low levels, interpreted as below detection limits. All Risk Quotient values were < 1. Under the incident scenario, Pb and Cr exceeded RQ > 1, while Cd remained below 1. Drinking water source was significantly associated with stunting (p < 0.001; OR = 7.98) and remained significant after adjustment. Conclusion: Current exposure indicates no immediate non-carcinogenic risk; however, long-term projections suggest potential future health risks. The association between drinking water source and stunting highlights the importance of improving water quality management and access to safe drinking water in small island communities.
Introduction: Diarrhea is a public health concern among toddlers in low- and middle-income countries. Environmental factors such as household hygiene practices, drinking water and food management practices are significant potential drivers of diarrhea among toddlers. This research investigated the association between the identified determinants and the occurrence of diarrhea among toddlers living in Surabaya, Indonesia. Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted involving 108 toddlers aged 12–59 months selected through simple random sampling. Chi-square analysis and multivariable logistic regression were performed to examine the data. Results and Discussion: Bivariate analysis showed significant associations between diarrhea and toddler age, caregiver education level, personal hygiene, drinking water and food management practices. Based on multivariable logistic regression, male was found to be more prone to diarrhea than female toddlers (OR = 3.18; 95% CI: 1.16–8.73; p = 0.025). Diarrhea was more prevalent among toddlers ≤ 24 months compared to those aged > 24 months (OR = 7.54; 95% CI: 2.04–27.86; p = 0.002). Poor personal hygiene (OR = 4.47; 95% CI: 2.46–32.33; p = 0.005) and inadequate household food management (OR = 8.93; 95% CI: 1.55–12.90; p = 0.001) identified as variable linked to diarrhea incidence. Conclusion: Diarrhea among toddlers is significantly associated with personal hygiene and food management practices. Younger age and male sex also contribute to higher risk. Strengthening hygiene practices and improving food management in household-level are essential to reduce the burden of diarrhea among toddlers.
Introduction: Refilled drinking water (RDW) is contaminated with microplastics (MPs) which have an impact on human health. Despite increasing evidence, regulatory standards, and monitoring remain limited. The objective of this study was to analyze MPs abundance based on characteristics of RDW depots. Methods: This observational study was carried out using across-sectional design, with the population comprising all RDW depots operating in 2 sub-districts, Banyumas, Indonesia (n = 36). A total of 1000 mL of RDW was collected from each depot using glass bottles to minimize contamination. Equipment was acid-washed (10% nitric acid), rinsed with distilled water, and plastic materials were avoided. MPs were identified morphologically under a microscope based on shape, color, and abundance. Data were analyzed using independent t-tests and one-way ANOVA. Results and Discussion: The results showed that MPs were detected in all samples, with fragment-shaped particles predominating (82.1%), black-colored being most common (87.3%), and a mean abundance of 42.6 particles/L (min–max: 18–69; SD: 12.5). Higher mean MPs abundance was observed in urban areas, the use of piped water as the raw water source, depots operating for more than five years, less frequent maintenance, and high sanitation risk. Furthermore, statistically significant differences were found based on maintenance routines (p-value = 0.028) and sanitation risk levels (p-value = 0.003). Conclusion: This study showed that regular and well-planned maintenance practices, together with proper hygiene and sanitation implementation, were key factors in controlling MPs contamination in RDW depots.
Introduction: Despite robust immunization programs, measles remains a persistent public health challenge in Selangor, Malaysia. This study conducts a spatio-temporal analysis of measles cases in children under seven years old from 2018 to 2024 to identify high-risk clusters and evaluate environmental drivers. Methods: This retrospective cross-sectional study utilized secondary epidemiological data from the Ministry of Health and meteorological data from MET Malaysia. Analysis included descriptive statistics and GIS-based spatial autocorrelation using Global Moran’s I and Local Indicators of Spatial Association. Hotspots were identified via Getis Ord Gi, while the influence of climatic factors was assessed through correlation and regression analysis. Results and Discussion: A total of 1,198 cases were analyzed. Significant geographic variation was observed, with the highest disease burden consistently located in the Hulu Langat and Gombak districts, suggesting that transmission is more concentrated in high-density areas. Cases peaked in 2018, with subsequent fluctuations influenced by public health interventions and demographic shifts. Spatial analysis identified major hotspots in central Selangor (Hulu Langat, Gombak, and Petaling) and cold spots in Sabak Bernam, Kuala Selangor, and Kuala Langat. Regression models indicated that while temperature and humidity had weak associations with measles incidence, rainfall was a significant predictor (p = 0.040), accounting for 13.9% of the variance. Conclusion: The findings underscore the impact of rainfall and urbanization on measles transmission in Selangor. The effectiveness of measles outbreak prevention and resource allocation could be improved by focusing immunization efforts in high-risk areas and incorporating meteorological and spatio-temporal data into public health surveillance systems.
