Background Generalised trust matters for social cohesion, economic exchange and institutional life, but there is still disagreement about the conditions under which it emerges. This article studies whether the same economic, institutional and personal factors are linked to three forms of trust, namely trust in most people, trust in people met for the first time and trust in neighbours. Methods The analysis uses individual data from the seventh wave of the World Values Survey, collected from 2018 to 2022, together with national economic and institutional indicators. The final models cover 49 countries. Trust in most people is estimated with a binary probit model, while trust in people met for the first time and trust in neighbours are estimated with ordered probit models. The main estimates use standard errors clustered by country and are compared with mixed-effects models, correlated random effects models and linear specifications. Results Income inequality is the country-level factor most consistently linked to lower trust, and this association appears in the three trust domains. At the individual level, personal income, age, gender and education are also associated with trust. Education follows a curved pattern, with lower trust at intermediate levels and higher trust again among those with the highest education levels. National income is positively associated with trust in most people and in people met for the first time, but not clearly with trust in neighbours. Institutionalised democracy shows some evidence of a possible substitution between formal institutions and neighbourhood trust, although this result is not stable in all models. Religious importance is associated with lower trust in most people but higher trust in neighbours. Religious tolerance is positively related to trust, mainly through differences between countries rather than differences between individuals within the same country. Conclusions Trust should not be treated as a single attitude with the same determinants in every context. Some factors, especially inequality and personal income, are linked to trust across several domains, while others depend on the social distance between the people involved. Policies aimed at strengthening trust therefore need to be clear about which type of trust they seek to build.
In 2024, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) launched RespiCompass, a scenario modelling hub for infectious respiratory diseases. The hub uses an ensemble approach, whereby projections from models developed by separate groups are combined to obtain mid-to-long term scenario-based projections. RespiCompass provides outputs designed to help public health experts and authorities assess respiratory virus risks and evaluate the potential impact of interventions, including vaccination. In building RespiCompass, ECDC has convened modelling teams, disease experts, and policymakers to work together in identifying policy-relevant questions, designing scenario rounds, and interpreting multi-model outputs. Drawing on lessons from other modelling hubs, RespiCompass successfully navigated the complex challenges of its first year, fostering cross-sector collaboration and delivering timely insights for the 2024/25 respiratory virus season. This article describes RespiCompass and distils key operational, technical, and collaborative lessons to inform future initiatives; the quantitative results from the first round are reported separately. 1
Background Olive ( Olea europaea L.) breeding initiatives rely heavily on the extensive and correct characterisation of genetic resources to successfully achieve their goals, such as addressing climate change and emerging diseases challenges. However, the historical lack of standardised phenotyping protocols across multi-environment trials has severely hindered data interoperability and large-scale comparative analyses. Methods Within the Horizon 2020 GEN4OLIVE project, five international olive germplasm banks established a consensus-based methodological framework to systematically evaluate over 500 olive cultivars. We harmonised 14 evaluation protocols covering six fundamental dimensions: phenological and agronomic traits, abiotic stress resilience, biotic stress resilience, olive oil yield and chemical quality, table olive quality assessment, and morphological characterisation and photography. While most protocols were adapted from previously published literature to ensure ease of implementation across different facilities, novel methodologies for frost tolerance and standardised photography were developed de novo. Results The implementation of these consensus methods across five countries proved highly successful. This methodological framework enabled the generation of the largest harmonised, publicly available dataset on olive genetic resources to date, effectively making possible the correct comparation and ranking of the olive cultivars based on their specific characteristics. Conclusions This compendium of methods provides a robust, highly replicable reference point for the standardisation of olive germplasm characterisation and use of shared benchmark cultivars as an effective way for data normalization and comparation. It facilitates future global pre-breeding efforts, ensures international data interoperability, and supports the discovery of resilient cultivars to secure the future of the olive sector.
This article reviews over 160 studies that use survey experiments to analyze how framing affects citizens’ social policy preferences. In doing so, it evaluates three theoretical perspectives: one suggesting that such preferences are extremely malleable, another emphasizing their stability due to deeply rooted predispositions, and a third arguing that framing effects are contingent on multiple factors. Overall, the scoping review finds strong support for the contingency view, showing that framing effects depend on characteristics of the frames, receivers, senders, and context. However, because existing research has predominantly focused on the characteristics of frame receivers, significant gaps remain in our understanding of how framing effects are shaped by other contingency factors. Most importantly, few studies have examined how these factors interact in shaping framing effects on social policy preferences. Accordingly, a novel research agenda is proposed, emphasizing the need to study these contingency factors not in isolation, but in combination.
Hospital school programs support educational continuity for children and adolescents during hospitalization, but the provision of physical education (PE) remains inconsistent and is rarely addressed by unified standards. This protocol aims to describe the methods for three complementary components designed to synthesise evidence on PE and related movement interventions in hospital settings and to map the policy frameworks governing PE provision in hospital schools. Tier 1 is an umbrella review of existing systematic reviews on physical activity interventions for hospitalised youth. Tier 2 is a systematic review of primary studies examining PE in hospital-school settings. For Tier 2, PE is operationally defined as a planned movement-based learning experience with an explicit educational purpose that is formally integrated into the hospital-school program or involves educational staff in its planning, delivery or assessment. Therapeutic exercise, rehabilitation and active play without this educational connection will be excluded from Tier 2, although they may be represented in Tier 1. A parallel policy framework analysis will identify and compare relevant laws, regulations, curricula, strategies and guidelines. Separate search strategies will be used for each component across health, education, sport and policy sources, without language or date restrictions. Narrative synthesis will be the primary approach. Meta-analysis will be considered only when at least three independent studies are sufficiently comparable in population, intervention, design, outcome construct and assessment time point. Priority synthesis will distinguish implementation/process evidence from effectiveness outcomes. Safety, implementation and educational participation will be synthesised primarily using narrative, qualitative and mixed-method approaches, whereas physical functioning and psychosocial well-being will be prioritised for quantitative effect synthesis and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) when sufficiently comparable evidence is available. The planned reviews are intended to clarify the available evidence and policy landscape and may inform subsequent guideline development for PE in hospital schools. PROSPERO registration: CRD420251156215.
Background The representation of Ukraine in global comics has long been shaped by imperial, Soviet, and Russian interpretative frameworks that have obscured Ukrainian historical and cultural specificity. While previous scholarship has examined representations of Eastern Europe in popular culture, comparatively little attention has been paid to the mechanisms through which Ukraine has been rendered visible yet simultaneously displaced within global comics. Methods The paper examines three case studies from different comic traditions: Tintin in the Land of the Soviets (1929) by Hergé, Nestor Makhno (1976) by Spain Rodriguez, and Ivan Karine (1963–1964) by Enzo Chiomenti. Combining visual, discursive, and narratological analysis with postcolonial and decolonial perspectives, the article analyses four dimensions of representation: naming, spatial framing, iconography, and narrative positioning. It introduces the concept of distorted visibility to describe representational mechanisms such as absence, substitution, Russification, Sovietization, symbolic appropriation, and mislocation. Results The analysis demonstrates that Ukrainian territories, historical figures, and cultural symbols are incorporated into broader Soviet, Russian, or imperial narratives. In Hergé’s work, Soviet space is visually homogenized through Russian cultural markers. Rodriguez presents Nestor Makhno primarily through the framework of the Russian Revolution and anarchist mythology, while Ukraine remains a secondary setting. Ivan Karine appropriates Cossack imagery but reorganizes it within a Russian imperial adventure narrative. Ukrainian material becomes visible, while its distinct historical and cultural identity is systematically displaced. Conclusions The findings suggest that global comics participated in the production and circulation of enduring cultural assumptions about Ukraine before 2014. The Ukrainian case serves as a lens through which to examine what is made visible – and what remains systematically overlooked – in transnational graphic storytelling. This paper contributes to ongoing discussions on cultural erasure, epistemic asymmetries, and the visual geopolitics shaping representations of Eastern Europe.
Background Freeze-thaw processes leave diagnostic traces in archaeological soils and sediments that are central to reconstructing past climates and understanding hominin adaptations to glacial environments. Frost features can be defined through soil micromorphology techniques using well-defined diagnostic criteria, but these traces can be subtle, variably expressed, and overlap with other pedogenic processes, making their identification time-consuming, expert-dependent, and subject to high inter-observer variability. Methods We trained five convolutional neural network architectures on photomicrographs from eleven Plio-Pleistocene archaeological sites, implementing a two-stage classification approach by detecting first the presence of those features (binary classification) and then the feature type (multiclass classification), and validated model outputs against both interpretability analysis and a blind survey of practicing micromorphologists. Results Results reveal a performance paradox: models achieve high performance but rely on spurious correlations rather than diagnostic criteria, while models that focus on micromorphologically relevant features show lower overall performance. Expert agreement on the same task is low, with uncertainty concentrated in feature detection rather than classification. Crucially, model and expert errors are largely independent, and each captures different aspects of frost feature recognition, establishing a basis for complementarity. Conclusions These findings demonstrate that effective computational integration in micromorphology requires not only accurate classification but interpretability validation ensuring that model’s reason from the same diagnostic criteria as experts. We propose a human-in-the-loop approach where models provide consistent first screening, while experts offer contextual interpretation and diagnostic validation. Additionally, we present an interactive open-access tool that implements this pipeline to facilitate adoption and repeatability.
The objective of this scientific and research article is to conduct a meta-analysis of Europol’s strategic intelligence over the past two decades. The analysis covers all relevant Europol assessments from the 2005 Organised Crime Report to the 2025 Serious and Organised Crime Threat Assessment. The article identifies a progressive transformation, since descriptive reporting has evolved into an intelligence-led and predictive analysis. This progressive transformation reflects a broader institutional shift in EU criminal policy as well. Moreover, the article explores how the successive iterations of Europol’s threat assessments have functioned as soft law instruments and they have supported convergence in enforcement priorities and legal harmonisation. The originality of the article lies in the systematic and longitudinal comparison of relevant Europol reports (2005–2025), including an assessment of their epistemic and policy impact on EU criminal law. The findings of this article contribute to both academic debate and policy-making, because they demonstrate how strategic intelligence can become a driver of harmonisation and governance in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice.
This country report, prepared as part of the EUPopLink COST Action, discusses populist Euroscepticism in Dutch party politics, as well as its limited consequences. Criticisms of the EU’s functioning notwithstanding, mainstream parties as well as a large majority of Dutch citizens continue to support membership of the European Union. The salience of European integration as a campaign issue has generally been low. Two far-right parties have – in one case temporarily – taken ‘hard Eurosceptic’ positions, voicing support for a Dutch exit from the EU. Yet the report suggests that populist parties in the Netherlands have been characterised by an ‘instrumental Euroscepticism’ whereby the EU is brought up as a theme insofar as it is seen to help emphasise a political actor’s message and underlying ideological agenda.
Background The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted research globally, placing unprecedented pressure on regulatory systems. In Uganda, research ethics committees (RECs) and regulatory bodies faced challenges in maintaining oversight, ethical compliance, and continuity of research. Specifically, the study explored stakeholder experiences and perceptions of how Uganda’s clinical research policies and guidelines were implemented and how they influenced the conduct of ethical and safe research during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods A qualitative descriptive study was conducted across seven districts, involving all UNCST-accredited RECs. Data were collected through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews with 56 participants, including REC Chairpersons, administrators, researchers, and representatives from research regulatory authorities in Uganda. Purposive sampling ensured recruitment of participants with relevant expertise. Virtual interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using thematic analysis. Ethical approval and informed consent were obtained. Results Uganda’s research policies and guidelines were reported by participants to support continuity of research through strengthened collaboration, including joint protocol reviews and coordinated regulatory processes. Standardization and adaptive measures, such as digital submissions, virtual meetings, remote monitoring, and hybrid consent models, were perceived to enhance efficiency and facilitate study adjustments. However, constraints including increased workload, limited oversight due to movement restrictions, and financial challenges persisted, highlighting the need for more adaptable and resilient regulatory systems. Conclusions Uganda’s research policies and guidelines were perceived to supported continuity of ethical research during the pandemic through strengthened collaboration and standardized yet adaptable regulatory processes. However, operational and resource constraints highlighted gaps in system resilience. Strengthening digital infrastructure, institutionalizing collaborative review mechanisms, embedding adaptable procedures, and securing emergency research funding will be critical to enhance the responsiveness and resilience of Uganda’s research regulatory system in future public health emergencies.
The accelerating transition toward electromobility brings both opportunities and challenges. End-of-life lithium-ion batteries represent a rapidly growing waste stream containing critical raw materials. This study presents the design of a pilot-scale recycling process developed to treat Armenia’s projected 500 t/year of spent lithium-ion batteries expected from 2028–2029 onward. The process integrates vacuum drying, sulfuric acid leaching with hydrogen peroxide oxidation, solvent extraction, and selective recovery of Li₂CO 3 , Co, and Ni. Drawing on data reported by previous researchers, the authors adopted operating conditions of 80 °C, pH < 2, and 4–6 h residence time, which are known to achieve leaching efficiencies of about 90% Li, 95% Co, and 85% Ni. Literature also confirms that under these parameters, producing >99.5% purity Li₂CO 3 is realistic. Calculations for the designed system indicated total water and energy consumption of about 3.7 m 3 /day and 1.2–1.6 MWh/day, respectively. With waste generation projected to reach 3,000 t/year by 2030, the modeled process indicates that a localized recycling facility could achieve a payback period on the order of 5–6 years under realistic, risk-adjusted assumptions, thereby demonstrating the technical and strategic feasibility of urban mining in Armenia and other small-market economies.
This report examines the relationship between populism and Euroscepticism in Estonia, a country characterised by strong and long-standing support for European integration. Estonia’s pro-European orientation has been shaped by the historical narrative of a “return to Europe,” security concerns, and the close connection between EU membership and national identity. Despite this broad consensus, several political parties express Eurosceptic and populist tendencies. The analysis focuses on EKRE, Fatherland, the Estonian Centre Party, Together, and Right-wingers. Among them, EKRE emerges as the most prominent Eurosceptic-populist actor, combining nationalist and anti-establishment rhetoric with criticism of EU integration, particularly on sovereignty, migration, and climate policy. The findings show that Estonia remains relatively resilient to stronger Eurosceptic mobilisation, while EKRE maintains stable political support. Estonia thus represents a distinctive case of enduring pro-European consensus coexisting with a limited but persistent Eurosceptic opposition.
Background Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is a major cause of morbidity, mortality, impaired welfare, production loss, and antimicrobial use in cattle. These European Network for Optimization of Veterinary Antimicrobial Therapy (ENOVAT) guidelines provide evidence-based recommendations for antimicrobial and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) use in cattle with acute, undifferentiated BRD, balancing animal-level outcomes with antimicrobial stewardship. Methods Recommendations were developed using the GRADE approach and Evidence-to-Decision frameworks, following ENOVAT procedures and RIGHT reporting guidance. Evidence came from two prespecified systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials evaluating individual treatment of clinical BRD: one comparing antimicrobial classes head-to-head and one evaluating NSAIDs as adjunctive treatment or monotherapy. Metaphylaxis and prophylaxis were excluded. Certainty of evidence was assessed with GRADE. Panel judgments incorporated stakeholder-derived thresholds for clinically meaningful differences in short-term therapeutic failure, defined as need for antimicrobial re-treatment, and a merged stewardship perspective based on WHO antimicrobial importance and EMA AMEG categories. Results Across antimicrobial comparisons, no class showed a clinically meaningful advantage in reducing short-term re-treatment sufficient to override stewardship considerations. The panel conditionally suggests penicillin G, oxytetracycline, or florfenicol as first-line empirical treatment, guided by local susceptibility data, herd treatment history, product authorization, withdrawal periods, and suspicion of Mycoplasmopsis bovis infection. Macrolides are conditionally suggested as second-line treatment, preferably guided by culture and susceptibility testing or documented treatment failure. Fluoroquinolones are recommended against as primary or secondary treatment, except in exceptional, justified circumstances consistent with regulations. Adding NSAIDs to antimicrobials did not meaningfully reduce antimicrobial re-treatment; the panel recommends against NSAID use for this specific purpose. Evidence was insufficient to recommend for or against NSAIDs for welfare-related outcomes or as antimicrobial substitutes. Conclusions These guidelines prioritize effective BRD treatment while reducing unnecessary use of higher-priority antimicrobials. Local adoption or adaptation using GRADE-ADOLOPMENT is recommended.
Background With the expanding use of virtual reality (VR) technologies, it is important to understand how common vision problems, affecting over 50% of the population, may influence the use of VR, as well as how VR use, in turn, affects visual and oculomotor functions. This scoping review aimed to map current knowledge on the interaction between visual and oculomotor functions and VR usage. Methods Following the JBI and PRISMA-ScR guidelines, the literature search was performed in three databases, using search terms for visual and oculomotor functions combined with terms for VR. Peer reviewed research articles, published in English from 2016 to 2025, were included. Eligible studies used fully immersive stereoscopic VR headsets and performed vision measurements pre-, post-, or during VR exposure. Studies focusing on vision impairment or rehabilitation were excluded. Results Twenty-eight studies from 13 countries were included. Most studies (64%) involved participants aged 18 to 32 years with normal or corrected-to-normal distance visual acuity, stereoacuity, and binocular vision. The VR sessions typically lasted 10–30 min. Eleven studies assessed how visual and oculomotor factors affected performance and user comfort in VR, highlighting the role of binocular vision for precise depth perception and the importance of proper IPD adjustments for user comfort and performance. Twenty studies evaluated visual and oculomotor functions following VR exposure. Visual function remained mostly unaffected post-VR, while oculomotor function, such as accommodation and vergence, showed both improvements and deteriorations. Conclusions Findings indicate potential disturbances in binocular vision following VR engagement. However, current research has focused on participants without common vision problems, lacking detailed baseline assessments, limiting generalizability. Future studies should include participants with common vision problems, provide comprehensive description of visual and oculomotor functions, and explore long-term and repeated VR exposure. Addressing these gaps is essential for developing evidence-based guidelines and designing comfortable, accessible VR technologies.
Background Individual, household, and community behaviours influence wider pro-environmental and climate-related outcomes, yet evidence on the outcomes and effectiveness of behaviour change interventions (BCIs) remains fragmented. This umbrella review protocol provides a systematic approach to synthesising accumulated knowledge, identifying general patterns and research gaps in a structured way. Methods This protocol outlines an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses (SRMA), following the latest standards for reporting methodological quality, critical appraisal and risk-of-bias assessment. Searches will be conducted across large academic databases in health, behavioural and environmental sciences for records in peer-reviewed journals, published until April 2026. The protocol details a strategy for searching, retrieving, screening, selecting and evaluating records that address BCIs for pro-environmental behaviours among the general population. The selected records will be screened for quality, and the findings will be analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. Data extraction will account for primary studies (covered within reviewed studies), and the synthesis will summarise intervention types, delivery modes, contextual factors, behavioural and mental health outcomes. Expected Results This protocol represents an initial, safeguarding step in the umbrella review process. By following a detailed plan and rigorous standards, the umbrella review is expected to offer reliable insights for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers developing evidence-informed strategies for promoting climate action. Registration In accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) guidelines (Shamseer et al., 2015), the following umbrella review protocol was registered via the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) on 22 October, 2025 (registration number: CRD420251119136).
Background Diphtheria remains a significant public health threat in Nigeria, highlighting the need for an adequately prepared healthcare workforce and health system. This study assessed healthcare workers’ knowledge of diphtheria, infection prevention and control (IPC) practices, and preparedness for diphtheria outbreaks in Kano State, Nigeria. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among 421 healthcare workers selected using a multistage sampling technique. Data were collected using a semi-structured interviewer-administered questionnaire, while facility preparedness was assessed using a structured checklist completed by designated facility focal persons in 24 selected health facilities. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analyses were performed at a 5% significance level using SPSS version 20. Results showed that Overall, 51.0% of healthcare workers had poor knowledge of diphtheria, while 53.4% demonstrated poor IPC practices. Healthcare workers in primary healthcare facilities were significantly less likely to have good IPC practices than those in tertiary facilities (OR = 0.097, 95% CI: 0.041–0.232; p < 0.001). Although respondents demonstrated good individual preparedness for diphtheria outbreaks, 70.8% of health facilities were classified as poorly prepared. Conclusions, despite good self-reported individual preparedness among healthcare workers, important deficiencies in knowledge, IPC practices, and facility preparedness remain. Strengthening healthcare worker training, IPC implementation, and facility-level outbreak preparedness is essential to improve readiness for future diphtheria outbreaks.
While persecutions endured by non-Muslims under the “Turkish yoke” still represent a common trope both in the public perception and in certain academic circles in Orthodox-majority countries today, recent scholarly work has offered more nuanced approaches to the history of the Orthodox Churches under Ottoman rule. Making use of the rich information provided by Ottoman archival sources, this paper examines several unpublished documents from the Ottoman Archives in Istanbul, representing petitions (ʿarżuḥāl ) submitted by Sylvester, the Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch (1724–1766). It is no surprise that an important theme of these petitions concerned the conflict between the Orthodox and Catholic factions in Greater Syria, the latter being recently energised by the election of a separate patriarch in 1724, in the person of Cyril VI, and the establishment of an independent Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarchate. While previous studies have highlighted the crucial help that Sylvester received from the other Orthodox Patriarchs in Istanbul and Jerusalem in having his seat recognised by Ottoman authorities, the ʿarżuḥāls examined in this paper showcase Sylvester’s own agency in negotiating Church affairs with the Porte. Either demanding imperial commands to reinforce his election as patriarch or to prevent Orthodox Christians from converting to Catholicism and imprisoning his rivals, Sylvester made full use of his position in the Ottoman administrative apparatus by using state-sanctioned practices to solve inter-confessional struggles. The paper argues that the Ottoman Empire provided a legal and administrative framework in which Orthodox Churches were not merely compelled to function under duress, but one which they found advantageous and from which they sought legitimisation for their own factional struggles.
Nature-based interventions may support health and wellbeing but contact with natural environments is in itself not always enough – the structure and quality of engagement with nature also shape outcomes. This is particularly relevant for people with mobility impairments, who often face physical and social barriers to nature engagement. This study aimed to develop and describe a place-based audio guide for accessible nature visits and to refine the intervention prior to further evaluation. The guide was developed within a complex intervention framework. Development was iterative, drawing on theory, empirical literature, evidence on mobility-related barriers to nature access and engagement and a feasibility pilot. The final guide consisted of three audio tracks delivered at predefined stops along an accessible nature route. The guide was structured around three components: present-moment awareness, biological interconnectedness and nature knowledge. Pilot findings suggested that the guide could support attentional orientation, sensory engagement and reflective meaning-making, while also identifying challenges related to pause uncertainty, sensory interference, route structure and prompt–context mismatch. These findings informed refinement of the content, delivery options and programme theory. This study provides a transparent, theory- and feasibility-informed basis for further process and outcome evaluation of a guided nature-based intervention.
This Open Letter argues that meaningful digital participation requires a fundamental rethinking of how political organisations active in the field of politics design, deploy, and sustain the tools intended to (re)engage hard-to-reach groups in society. It does so by drawing on insights that emerged from a roundtable held during the Relink 2 & Brussels Institute for Advanced Studies (BrIAS) workshop titled “Citizens, Political Organisations and Digital Technologies: Disconnection or/and Reconnection?”. This workshop brought together practitioners from organisations that deal with citizen rights, digital campaign support, youth internet governance, as well as civic participation platforms. Following the exchange, the organising committee commissioned a policy brief from the Policy Lab. The current letter summarises its key insights. Overall, practitioners that took part in the roundtable converged on the view that accessibility, trust, and institutional commitment act as primary obstacles to effective engagement. Digital participation tools often fail to accommodate linguistic, generational, socio-economic, and/or ability-related differences. At the same time, fragmented regulatory environments and widespread scepticism toward digital platforms further erode confidence. Political and administrative bodies frequently treat participation as an experimental add-on rather than a core democratic function, resulting in short-lived initiatives and weak—if not absent—feedback loops. Consequently, the letter calls for a shift toward technical innovation grounded in people’s lived experiences and communication habits, which inevitably requires long-term institutionalisation, diversified outreach strategies, and hybrid online–offline approaches that meet citizens where they are. Finally, the letter identifies key priorities for future research, including on ethics surrounding the use of AI for civic engagement, on the role of political and digital literacy, on the governance of digital platforms, and on the institutional conditions that enable durable civic participation. Ultimately, the letter seeks to contribute to the broader debate on how democratic institutions can reconnect with citizens in an increasingly digital public sphere.
Background Condition Monitoring Services (CMS) have emerged as an important digitally enabled service offering within manufacturing servitization, allowing Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) to remotely monitor equipment, improve maintenance performance, and create new service-based revenue streams. Despite the technological maturity of condition monitoring technologies, many OEMs continue to struggle with the successful implementation of CMS. This study aims to identify the challenges limiting CMS implementation, the solutions used to overcome these challenges, and the recommendations that can support successful CMS implementation. Methods An exploratory expert elicitation approach was adopted. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 experts from OEMs, universities, research centres, and business consultancy organizations who possessed substantial experience in CMS implementation, digital servitization, and Industry 4.0. The interview data were analysed using inductive thematic analysis. Results The findings reveal that the principal barriers to CMS implementation are socio-technical rather than technological. Three interrelated groups of challenges were identified: challenges related to CMS value propositions, challenges associated with CMS design processes, and challenges concerning organizational and customer readiness. To address these challenges, experts proposed solutions centred on value quantification, co-creative and iterative service design, and service-oriented organizational capability development. The study further identified recommendations emphasizing customer-value-driven CMS design, dedicated and legitimate service units, and proactive management of organizational change. Conclusions Successful CMS implementation depends less on the sophistication of condition monitoring technologies and more on the ability of OEMs to align technological resources, organizational capabilities, customer requirements, and value creation mechanisms. By providing empirically grounded insights into the challenges, solutions, and recommendations associated with CMS implementation, this study extends both CMS and digital servitization literature and offers actionable CMS-specific guidance for OEMs seeking to transform condition monitoring technologies into sustainable service businesses.
