Living Labs (LLs) have emerged as important instruments for fostering innovation in public policies, particularly at the local level, as they engage citizens, public authorities, research institutions, and private actors in collaborative experimentation. However, despite their rapid diffusion and theoretical promise, some empirical studies have questioned their effectiveness in generating tangible policy changes. This paper investigates the implementation dynamics of 24 LLs in various European cities and identifies the key factors that have limited their impact in producing policy innovation. These factors refer to problems stemming from the design and the implementation stage and include misalignment between experiments and citizens' needs, constraints on iterative testing, role confusion within the quadruple-helix governance structure, and a limited capacity to promote learning through which the implementation process can be adjusted. The study recommends strengthening citizen alignment, reorienting experiments toward policy changes, clarifying the roles of actors, and improving information gathering to promote learning. Moreover, political commitment has emerged as a decisive factor for the success of LLs.
Technology transfer ecosystems (TTEs) support innovation and regional development by enabling the commercialisation of academic research. Within these ecosystems, technology transfer offices (TTOs) and related intermediaries coordinate knowledge exchange at the science-market interface. Although research on individual technology transfer actors has expanded, less attention has been given to how these actors are configured and governed as an interconnected ecosystem, particularly in transition economies where policy mediation and resource constraints are important. This paper examines the organisational design and interaction patterns of university technology transfer organisations and university-based TTEs in Hungary. Using documentary analysis and a structured survey of 15 Hungarian universities, we identify a state-anchored ecosystem configuration. In this configuration, intermediaries are typically university-owned and centrally governed, autonomy is limited, and coordination is closely tied to public funding instruments and policy steering. The study contributes to TTE typology development and offers practical implications for strengthening intermediary autonomy, external interfaces, and funding diversification.
