Abstract The mobile phone has become a primary information tool, and the relationship between people and mobile technology is closer than ever before. Lexicographers cannot ignore the ubiquitous nature of mobile phones. The mobile phone as a lexicographically orientated device should enjoy attention in the lexicographic discourse. There is, however, a paradox. Numerous mobile lexicographic products have been produced, but these products are not necessarily grounded in metalexicographic theory. In contrast, it appears that metalexicography does not always have the appreciation for or interest in mobile lexicography. This article introduces a metalexicographic and partly interdisciplinary theoretical model for the development, design and evaluation of lexicographic products on mobile phones. This model is largely based on metalexicographic principles, especially those of the Function Theory and the General Theory of Lexicography, while aspects of the lexicographic practice, as well as related disciplines such as usability, interaction design and human-centred design, are also integrated throughout.
Abstract Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly influencing the development of lexicography and offers significant potential for transforming dictionary production and use in African languages. In multilingual contexts such as South Africa, where twelve official languages coexist within the education system, AI technologies present new opportunities for the creation of accessible, dynamic, and user-oriented lexicographic resources. This article examines the opportunities, capabilities, and challenges associated with the integration of AI in African lexicography, with particular attention to its potential role in supporting multilingual education. AI technologies, including machine learning and natural language processing, enable faster corpus analysis, automated identification of lexical patterns, and the efficient updating of lexical databases. These capabilities can support the development of lexicographic tools that move beyond static reference works to become interactive digital tools. Such dictionaries can incorporate features such as intelligent search, pronunciation support, contextual usage examples, and multilingual linking between African languages and English. In multilingual educational environments, these tools can assist learners in accessing disciplinary vocabulary across languages, thereby supporting reading comprehension and facilitating multidisciplinary learning. However, the application of AI in African lexicography is constrained by several structural challenges. A major limitation is the scarcity of large, balanced, and machine-readable corpora for many African languages. Much linguistic data remains undocumented, fragmented, or unavailable in digital form, particularly in relation to spoken language and emerging terminology. These data gaps can limit the accuracy and representativeness of AI-driven lexicographic systems. Addressing these challenges requires sustained efforts in corpus development, digitisation of existing resources, and the creation of accessible linguistic datasets. The article argues that while AI cannot replace the expertise and interpretive role of lexicographers, it offers powerful tools that can enhance lexicographic practice and expand access to dictionaries. When combined with ongoing linguistic research and data development, AI has the potential to support the creation of innovative, user-centred lexicographic resources that strengthen multilingual education, improve reading development, and promote the use and status of African languages.
Abstract This article investigates gender bias and stereotyping in African language lexicography, with specific reference to two Northern Sotho dictionaries. Drawing on the framework of critical lexicography, dictionaries are approached as cultural artefacts and potential carriers of ideology. The study focuses primarily on the Groot Noord-Sotho Woordeboek (GNSW), a pre-corpus, introspection-based trilingual dictionary, and compares selected findings with the more recent Oxford Bilingual School Dictionary: Northern Sotho and English (OBSD), which is corpus-based. The analysis centres on usage examples, which, alongside definitions, constitute a key site for the encoding of cultural and ideological meaning. Two datasets are examined: (i) example sentences containing the lemma mosadi ‘woman’, and (ii) the use of gendered pronouns in English translations. The findings reveal a persistent pattern of gender bias and stereotyping, including the domesticisation of women, asymmetrical gender representation, and a strong preference for masculine default forms. The study further demonstrates that a corpus-based approach does not automatically eliminate such biases. It is argued that lexicographers must actively mediate between descriptive practice and normative responsibility in order to avoid perpetuating gender inequality.
Abstract Challenges encountered during the development of the African Wordnet, particularly lexical gaps and conceptual mismatches arising from modelling languages belonging to the family of Bantu languages through the expand approach based on the Princeton WordNet, are examined in this article. Many lexical items in Bantu languages encode culturally relevant concepts that are inadequately represented in existing synsets. The study argues for the inclusion of culturally specific synsets to improve coverage and support the documentation of indigenous knowledge. Focusing on isiZulu adjective constructions, it demonstrates that implementing semantic relations such as intensity and hyponymy yields a richer and more systematic representation of adjectival meaning than the predominantly antonymy-based structure currently employed. The findings support a semantically driven approach to African Wordnet development, informing lexicographic practice through more fine-grained and culturally grounded descriptions of meaning, and improving the applicability of the resource in language learning and computational tasks such as word sense disambiguation and machine translation.
Abstract This contribution attempts to provide a broad overview of Afrikaans lexicography. It starts with a brief account of the highlights in the history of the Afrikaans language that are relevant to its lexicography. Then it zooms in to the main categories of contemporary tangible artefacts: the comprehensive dictionary, standard monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, monolingual and bilingual school dictionaries, and language for specific purpose (LSP) dictionaries. For each category, an overview of recent developments and innovations are presented, the most notable of which are found in learner’s and school dictionaries. The professionalisation of Afrikaans lexicography is addressed by considering the core business of lexicography and distinguishing it from other occupations dealing with reference sources, followed by an evaluation of its state of professionalisation against criteria by which a professional occupation is defined. The contribution closes by looking at the future, particularly the potential impact of e-lexicography, digital developments and AI, as well as the most recent international developments in education, while remaining grounded in the Southern African realities.
