The Klondike Au district, in Yukon, Canada, hosts world-class placer gold deposits and numerous bedrock gold occurrences thought to be the source of the placer gold. This study investigates the trace element and Pb isotope composition of vein and placer gold alloy (native gold, electrum) in the Klondike district using LA-ICP-MS. The objectives are to enhance the use of placer gold as an exploration tool and to constrain the source of Au and associated metals in these deposits. The most abundant elements in Klondike district gold alloy are Ag and Hg (median concentrations of 30 wt
Iron oxide–apatite (IOA) deposits are globally significant sources of Fe, P, and Rare Earth Elements (REEs). Although input of hydrothermal processes into their origin is acknowledged, direct temporal constraints on the duration and style of their hydrothermal evolution remain scarce. The Abovyan deposit in central Armenia, hosted by late Miocene andesites, is one of the youngest known IOA systems worldwide and the only example in the Lesser Caucasus, providing a rare opportunity to address this problem. We integrate in-situ U–Pb dating of apatite and monazite with electron microprobe and LA-ICP-MS analyses, Raman spectroscopy and textural observations on samples from a single continuous drill core (67–337 m). A total of 162 analyses define a narrow age window between 5.58 ± 0.08 and 4.98 ± 0.07 Ma. Pristine F-rich apatite from the top and base of the section yields the oldest ages, consistent with magmatic crystallization. Monazite confined to Cl-bearing apatite domains gives an intermediate age of 5.26 ± 0.06 Ma, demonstrating new hydrothermal crystallization. Younger ages in Cl-rich, inclusion-rich apatite of the upper–middle interval extend down to 4.98 ± 0.07 Ma and provide direct evidence that hydrothermal activity continued after monazite formation. The depth-dependent spread of apatite ages is a record of staged fluid–rock interaction. Incomplete replacement of early F-rich apatite by later Cl-rich generations is reflected in younger apparent (mixed) ages, which document a minimum duration of hydrothermal activity in the upper-middle part of the deposit for at least several hundred thousand years after magmatic crystallization. Altered apatite domains are depleted in REE and enriched in Cl, consistent with coupled dissolution–reprecipitation. These features closely parallel fluid–rock interaction in IOA systems such as Kiruna and El Laco, but Abovyan uniquely provides temporal control to demonstrate that such processes persisted over protracted timescales in a roof-focused, compartmentalized regime.
The Triassic platform carbonates of the Eastern and Southern Alps host over 500 Pb-Zn deposits collectively known as Alpine-type (AT) Pb-Zn deposits. The AT deposits represent a subclass of Mississippi Valley–Type systems and one of Europe’s largest provinces for base and strategic metals (e.g. Ge, Ga) resources. Despite their importance, the source of metals, timing of mineralization, and mechanism driving fluid flow in the province remain debated. The Raibl deposit (Italy) displays structural and mineralogical features typical of the class, making it an ideal site to investigate controls on Pb-Zn accumulation. This study provides the first, detailed petrographic and compositional characterization of the hydrothermal carbonates associated with the Pb-Zn mineralization at Raibl and present in-situ U-Pb ages on syn- to post-ore carbonate domains alongside new Pb isotopic data on galena from Raibl and other selected AT deposits. Syn-ore carbonates show a distinctive geochemical signature (Fe and Mn enrichment) and constrain the mineralization to a short interval in the Late Triassic (214.0 ± 5.8 Ma to 205.2 ± 3.3 Ma). These constraints support a revised genetic model involving Late Triassic mobilization of oxidized, metal-bearing brines sourced from Permian clastic units (i.e. Val Gardena Sandstone and the Sesto Conglomerate) during early regional extension and strike-slip tectonic. Epigenetic sulphide precipitation at 2–4 km depth resulted from in-situ reduction of these fluids through interaction with organic-rich, Late Triassic lithologies. The proposed model for Raibl aligns with evidence from the world-class Bleiberg deposit but contrasts with smaller mineralized AT systems (e.g. Gorno) that record Middle Triassic, shallow diagenetic mineralization. Overall, the results suggest diachronous fluid flow and metal deposition across the province, emphasizing the role of local structural and geochemical factors in controlling economic accumulation of base metals.
Stable and radiogenic isotopes trace fluid and metal sources in volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits and discriminate between superimposed mineral systems in ancient terrains. Despite their application in many VMS districts, isotopic studies remain limited for the Skellefte district. This study presents the first in-situ sulfur isotope (δ34S) data for pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite from the metamorphosed Rävliden North Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag VMS deposit. The δ34S (Vienna Canyon Diablo Troilite, V-CDT) values ranging from -2.67 to 3.68 ‰ indicate a primordial sulfur source for the c. 1.88 Ga mineralization, derived from hydrothermal fluids leaching volcano-sedimentary rocks. In contrast, sulfide minerals in the stratigraphic hanging wall record heavier δ34S values (up to 5.3 ‰ in sphalerite) reflecting syn-diagenetic incorporation of Paleoproterozoic seawater sulfur under anoxic conditions. Pyrite from overprinting Svecokarelian quartz veins and sulfide-cemented breccia demonstrates progressive 34S isotope enrichment during syn-metamorphic growth, from near-zero hydrothermal δ34S in grain cores to 5 ‰ in grain margins. Post-Svecokarelian Zn-Pb minerals hosted in calcite- and zeolite-bearing veins and breccias display stable isotope ratios (δ13C, δ18O, δ114Cd, δ66Zn, δ56Fe) consistent with a meteoric or connate fluid source and precipitation under reducing conditions at approximately 150°C. Lead isotopes show a typical Skellefte VMS signature for Rävliden North, whereas the post-Svecokarelian mineralization exhibits a more radiogenic composition, similar to 0.5 Ga Pb–Zn veins of the Lycksele–Storuman area, constituting a superimposed mineral system, which formed due to far-field effects of the Timanian orogeny or the opening of the Iapetus Ocean. Our results demonstrate that distinguishing between remobilized and superimposed mineral systems in orogenic terrains requires integration of detailed paragenesis with isotope analyses.
Bismuth-rich melts are increasingly recognized as efficient collectors and transport agents for gold in hydrothermal systems, yet important questions remain regarding the processes controlling their generation, remobilization, and transport. The Martinamor Dome (Iberian Massif, Spain) hosts a long-lived granite-related Sn-W (± Bi-Au) mineral system that evolved between ca. 338–301 Ma and records multiple stages of structurally controlled hydrothermal mineralization, providing an ideal setting for investigating deformation-assisted metal remobilization. The youngest hydrothermal event (ca. 301–300 Ma) comprises an early cassiterite-bearing vein stage (V1) and a later Bi-Au-bearing, sulfide-dominated vein stage (V2), both formed during brittle deformation conditions under a strike-slip-dominated strain regime. Between these two stages, structural analysis indicates a shift from N-S to E-W maximum horizontal elongation, interpreted as the result of a σ2–σ3 stress permutation coupled with a decrease in differential stress. The sulfide stage records extensive remobilization of low-melting-point chalcophile elements (Bi, Ag, Te, Se, Pb, and Sb). Coupled dissolution-reprecipitation of early arsenopyrite generated sieve-textured arsenopyrite and contributed to the remobilization of low-melting point chalcophile elements (LMCE) into polymetallic Bi-rich melts, together with a likely contribution from the circulating hydrothermal fluid. Textural relationships and fluid inclusion data indicate the coexistence of Bi-rich melt droplets with a low-salinity H₂O-CO₂-CH₄ fluid at homogenization temperatures of 239–285 °C, under conditions compatible with their mechanical transport. Synchronous brittle deformation facilitated both melt transport and trapping, whereas the close association between electrum and Bi-rich droplets is consistent with Au scavenging by Bi-rich melts. These results demonstrate that brittle deformation, coupled dissolution-reprecipitation of arsenopyrite, and fluid-assisted metal remobilization were key controls on Bi redistribution during the late evolution of the Martinamor mineral system.
