To improve turfgrass development within the production system, it is essential to adopt sustainable alternatives that meet producers’ demands. These strategies should contribute to reducing production costs, improving product quality, and promoting crop sustainability. In this context, the use of sewage sludge compost and biostimulants has been widely studied for their application in agriculture. Thus, this study aims to evaluate the growth of Zoysiagrass cv. Esmeralda through the application of sewage sludge compost (SSC) combined with biostimulants as a nutrient source in the sod production in two cycles. The experiment was conducted under field conditions, in southwest of Brazil in February 2021, organized in a randomized block design with four repetitions. The treatments followed a 5 x 3 + 1 factorial scheme, consisting of five doses of SSC (0.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 Mg ha-1) combined with the absence or presence of biostimulants: (i) the growth-promoting bacterium Azospirillum brasilense and (ii) seaweed extract from Ascophyllum nodosum, and a control. The evaluated parameters included leaf green color intensity, the normalized difference vegetation index, and the green cover rate on the soil. The growth and visual quality of the grass were significantly improved by the application of seaweed extract combined with higher doses of SSC during periods of lower rainfall
Throughout history, from ancient civilizations to the contemporary world, flowers have always been present, in various contexts, such as cultural, symbolic or even economic. Thus, through the consultation of books, scientific publications and collections of art museums, this text addresses the symbologies of flowers in different civilizations and times, highlighting their social, cultural, religious and artistic importance. In Antiquity, the utilization of flowers was already multifaceted, including the offering to the gods, such as the lotus in Egypt, as evidenced in murals painted by this civilization. The Greeks and Romans used them to crown heroes of the arts and sports, while in Asia, especially for the Chinese and Japanese, species such as the chrysanthemum and the rose became important symbols. Among the Aztecs, unique flower gardens played a central role in religious rituals. During the European Middle Ages, flowers were fundamental in religious and medicinal functions, and in the Renaissance, they became a recurring inspiration for artistic expressions. In the nineteenth century, the Victorian Era highlighted floriography, in which bouquets expressed feelings determined by floral codes. In Brazil, indigenous and African peoples also attributed symbolism to flowers, being linked to nature and spirituality. With the Portuguese colonization, they reinterpreted these meanings and inserted them into the Christian narrative. In the Imperial period, flowers represented social distinction, but it was only from the 1950s, with the influence of Japanese and Dutch immigrants, that Brazilian floriculture began a process of expansion, becoming an important commercial activity. Currently, flowers, although no longer bearing the strong symbolism of previous eras, still express sensitivity and convey affection through their inherent beauty and aesthetic appeal, intertwining tradition and contemporaneity across different cultures.
Cut flower longevity is influenced by hormonal regulation, among which brassinosteroids (BRs) play a pivotal role in enhancing the postharvest quality of floricultural crops. However, the impact of BRs on cut Dendrobium orchids remains unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the effects of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) on the physiological responses and senescence of cut Dendrobium 'Khao Sanan' flowers. Flower buds were soaked in 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 & micro;M EBL solutions for 1 h, while distilled water served as the control treatment (0 & micro;M). Subsequently, all flowers were placed in distilled water and maintained at 25 degrees C. Flower quality and opening scores were determined for morphological observations. Furthermore, physiological changes were evaluated by measuring ethylene production, respiration rate, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content, lipid peroxidation, and antioxidant enzyme activities and capacity during and at the end of storage. The results showed that flowers treated with 2.5 and 5 & micro;M EBL exhibited substantially lower ethylene production, respiration rate, H2O2 content, and lipoxygenase (LOX) activity, along with reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Moreover, flowers treated with 2.5 and 5 & micro;M EBL displayed significantly higher catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activities, as well as increased antioxidant capacity than the other treatments, whereas flowers treated with 20 & micro;M EBL exhibited adverse responses, including accelerated senescence, increased oxidative damage, and reduced flower quality. This study indicates that low concentrations of EBL delayed flower senescence through enhanced antioxidant capacity, whereas high concentrations accelerated senescence. Therefore, cut Dendrobium 'Khao Sanan' orchids responded differentially to EBL in a concentration-dependent manner.
Native ornamental flora has great sustainable commercial potential but is still little explored compared to exotic species. This study aimed to describe the vegetative and floral morphological characteristics of Ionopsis utricularioides (Sw.) Lindl., with the objective of evaluating its ornamental potential. To achieve the proposed objective, eight individuals showing floral buds were used. The evaluated characteristics were: plant length (mm), plant diameter (mm), number of pseudobulbs per plant, pseudobulb diameter (mm), leaf length (mm), number of inflorescences per plant, inflorescence length (mm), inflorescence diameter (mm), number of flowers per floral scape, floral scape length (mm), number of open flowers per inflorescence per day, inflorescence and flower durability (days), and coloration. Floral measurements were obtained on the horizontal and vertical axes and coloration was visually assessed. For morphological analysis, the most representative plant was photographed, and at the end of the experimental period, means and standard deviations were calculated for all characteristics. I. utricularioides plants average 60.8 mm in length and 67.0 mm in diameter. Regarding flowering characteristics, the species averaged one inflorescence per plant, a floral scape of 200.3 mm, and 3.6 flowers open per day, with an average inflorescence durability of 26 days and flower durability of 10 days, notably featuring winter flowering. It is concluded that I. utricularioides has remarkable ornamental potential for use in floriculture and landscaping, offering a sustainable and valuable alternative for the market, especially with its winter blooming.
Specific treatments can improve and hasten the growth of amaryllis seedlings. In the present study, hybrid seedlings of amaryllis were sprayed with 0.5 and 1 g of nano-phosphorus (Nano-P) and inoculated with 20 and 40 g of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) alone or in combination. Nano-P alone significantly affected root number, with the maximum value at 0.5 g, but 1 g improved chlorophyll a and b contents. Most chemical contents in roots, bulbs, and leaves were enhanced by Nano-P, whereas reductions were found in root flavonoids and leaf soluble sugars. AMF applications significantly influenced growth traits, with 20 g yielding the maximum root number, bulb weight and size, and leaf dimensions. Generally, AMF declined root chemicals while improving bulb and leaf chemicals, especially at 20 g, but 40 g rose chlorophyll b and carbohydrates. Moreover, more pronounced and variable effects were observed owing to the interaction between Nano-P and AMF than individual applications. The highest root number, root total proteins, root total carbohydrates, root soluble sugar, bulb soluble sugar, leaf soluble sugar, and root total phenols were recorded due to Nano-P at 0.5 g combined with 0 g AMF. The combination of 20 g AMF resulted in the maximum leaf length, bulb weight, and bulb size. Additionally, the highest leaf width, bulb total protein, and root total indoles were obtained at the combination of 0.5 g phosphorus and 20 g of mycorrhizae. Overall, moderate levels of Nano-P and AMF, particularly their combination at 0.5 g and 20 g, respectively, produced optimal growth and metabolic performance.
The aim of this research was to characterize the phenology and phenometric variables of Gypsophila paniculata L. 'Overtime (R)' in managed field conditions, as well as to determine the correlation between abiotic factors (mean temperature, relative humidity, vapor pressure deficit, growing degree days) and phenometric variables (stem length and diameter, number of nodes, internodes, leaves and shoots and dry matter) and to calculate growth rates absolute and relative. To collect field data, a randomized complete block design with six blocks was employed, each block contained four to five plants, which served as experimental units. The crop cycle of G. paniculata was evaluated from transplanting to the senescence phase, for a total duration of 132 days after transplanting. The developmental stages of the species were characterized in detail, with the commercial harvest stage reached at 91 days after transplanting during flowering, corresponding to a cumulative growing degree of 1255.1 degrees C day. A sigmoid growth pattern was observed throughout the successive phenological stages, with the maximum absolute growth rate occurring between 60 - 75 days after transplanting, during this period, exogenous factors were integrated, including supplemental artificial lighting and gibberellic acid treatment, to enhance growth and induce flowering. After 75 days after transplanting, the relative growth rate declines as assimilates shift toward flowering. Among the phenometric variables, only stem length was significantly affected by temperature, relative humidity, and vapor pressure deficit, indicating that these environmental factors modulate growth dynamics throughout the crop cycle. These findings provide new insights into the growth dynamics and developmental responses of the species and contribute to the refinement of agronomic management practices under variable environmental conditions.
Torch ginger ( (Etlingera elatior) is a tropical cut flower native to Southeast Asia with high ornamental value and strong production potential in tropical regions of the Americas. Commercialization of this species is limited by its relatively short shelf life, which restricts distribution to distant markets. This study evaluated the quality retention in torch ginger cultivars ('Red Torch', 'Pink Torch', 'Porcelana', and 'Tulipa') under four storage temperatures (15 +/- 3, 18 +/- 3, 21 +/- 3, and 24 +/- 3 degrees C) over four storage durations (1, 4, 7, and 10 days). The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design using a split-plot arrangement over time, with four replications and five stems per experimental unit. Fresh mass, inflorescence stem diameter, water uptake, and inflorescence visual quality were evaluated using a scoring scale. Data were subjected to analysis of variance, and means were compared using Tukey's test at the 5% significance level. Refrigerated storage reduced fresh mass loss and water uptake compared with the control treatment (24 degrees C). Pronounced senescence symptoms in floral stems were observed at 7 and 10 days of storage, resulting in visual quality scores below 2. Storage at 15 degrees C resulted in greater postharvest longevity than the other temperatures evaluated, exceeding the control treatment by more than 30%, regardless of cultivar. Refrigerated storage extended the shelf life of torch ginger floral stems by reducing fresh mass loss and maintaining higher visual quality compared with the control.
The manual counting of marigold (Calendula officinalis L.) flowers is a labor-intensive task that compromises the accuracy of yield estimates and optimal harvest timing, especially in large-scale fields to know the harvesting moment. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of five versions of the YOLOv8 object detection model (Nano, Small, Medium, Large, and X-Large) for detecting and counting marigold flowers using high-resolution RGB images acquired by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The experimental design included image acquisition with a multispectral drone, image clipping, annotation, and model training on Google Colab with the Adam optimizer. Performance metrics such as precision, recall, mAP50, mAP50-95, and classification loss were analyzed, alongside model correlation with manual counting through Pearson's, RMSE, MAE, and R-2. The Large model demonstrated the best performance, achieving over 90% precision and mAP50 and an R-2 of 0.895. Although the X-Large model offered similar accuracy, it required significantly more computational resources. In contrast, the small model emerged as a computationally efficient alternative with performance comparable to the larger models. The findings demonstrate the feasibility of integrating UAV-based imagery and YOLOv8 for accurate, automated flower detection, reducing subjectivity and labor in floriculture management. This approach shows promise for broader applications in precision agriculture, especially for crops with small, dense floral structures.
Throughout history, from ancient civilizations to the contemporary world, flowers have always been present, in various contexts, such as cultural, symbolic or even economic. Thus, through the consultation of books, scientific publications and collections of art museums, this text addresses the symbologies of flowers in different civilizations and times, highlighting their social, cultural, religious and artistic importance. In Antiquity, the utilization of flowers was already multifaceted, including the offering to the gods, such as the lotus in Egypt, as evidenced in murals painted by this civilization. The Greeks and Romans used them to crown heroes of the arts and sports, while in Asia, especially for the Chinese and Japanese, species such as the chrysanthemum and the rose became important symbols. Among the Aztecs, unique flower gardens played a central role in religious rituals. During the European Middle Ages, flowers were fundamental in religious and medicinal functions, and in the Renaissance, they became a recurring inspiration for artistic expressions. In the nineteenth century, the Victorian Era highlighted floriography, in which bouquets expressed feelings determined by floral codes. In Brazil, indigenous and African peoples also attributed symbolism to flowers, being linked to nature and spirituality. With the Portuguese colonization, they reinterpreted these meanings and inserted them into the Christian narrative. In the Imperial period, flowers represented social distinction, but it was only from the 1950s, with the influence of Japanese and Dutch immigrants, that Brazilian floriculture began a process of expansion, becoming an important commercial activity. Currently, flowers, although no longer bearing the strong symbolism of previous eras, still express sensitivity and convey affection through their inherent beauty and aesthetic appeal, intertwining tradition and contemporaneity across different cultures.
The development of an effective in vitro propagation strategy for Alocasia reversa N.E.Br. using microbulb segment explants and the suppression of bacterial contaminants using ultraviolet C (UV-C) light were observed in this research. Several steps were taken, including shoot initiation, adventitious shoot formation from microbulb segment, suppression of bacterial contamination with UV-C, and the enlargement of plantlets until acclimatization. Shoot initiation was optimal on both Murashige Skoog (MS) and 1/2 MS media supplemented with 1.0 mg L-1 Thidiazuron (TDZ) and 0.5 mg L-1 N6Benzylaminopurine (BAP). The optimal medium for adventitious shoot induction from microbulb was identified as MS supplemented with 0.75 mg L(-1 )TDZ and 0.5 mg L-1 BAP. Conversely, the medium containing MS, 0.75 mg L-1 TDZ, and 0.75 mg L(-1 )BAP resulted in the fastest shoot initiation and the highest adventitious shoot formation. The next step, bacterial suppression in the middle of the in vitro culture, revealed that intermittent 1-hour UV-C irradiation was more effective for eliminating bacterial contaminants than longer irradiation. Plantlet enlargement was recorded; the best shoot was produced on MS with 1 mg L-1 BAP, but for root promotion, 1/2 MS was sufficient. Finally, the transparent plastic cover treatment acclimatization was observed in high performance using a transparent plastic cover. The protocol series for propagation using microbulb segment in vitro until the handling of bacterial contaminants and simple acclimatization methods can be used as a reference for the cultivation of A. reversa.
Lily (Lilium spp.) is widely appreciated for its beauty and color diversity, making it an important cut flower. However, its postharvest quality is limited, requiring specific treatments that need to be investigated, such as the combined application of sucrose and 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP). In this study, our aim was to explore the efficacy of pulsing solutions containing various concentrations of BAP combined with sucrose in preserving the post-harvest quality of 'Nova Scotia' lilies. The experimental design employed was a completely randomized factorial scheme, with five treatments (25 mg L-1 BAP + 100 g L-1 sucrose; 50 mg L-1 BAP + 100 g L(-1 )sucrose; 75 mg L-1 BAP + 100 g L(-1 )sucrose, Chrysal (R) commercial formula, and control with deionized water) and four evaluation dates. Alongside visual assessments, including tepal and leaf coloration, we quantified total carbohydrate content, fresh mass variation, solution uptake, and floral longevity. Our findings underscore the significant role of BAP and sucrose application in maintaining the postharvest quality of 'Nova Scotia' lily flowers. Notably, even at lower concentrations, these substances have demonstrated a considerable enhancement in fresh mass and prolonged flower longevity.
Pepper plants are an important source of minerals, being widely used in the food industry. Furthermore, this crop has relevant ornamental potential, but still little explored. In this sense, the characterization of ornamental pepper accesses is of great relevance to identify genotypes that present desirable characteristics, as well as measuring genetic variability. Given the above, the objective of the present research was to carry out the morphoagronomic characterization of ornamental pepper accesses. The experiments were conducted under greenhouse conditions belonging to the Pernambuco Agronomic Institute (IPA), situated in Recife. The market seeks plants in which there is harmony between the plant's architecture and the size of the pot, owing both plant height and crown diameter be 1.5 to 2 times the height of the vase, thus, only accesses 404, 408, 410, and 423 would fit this criterion. For the characteristics of immature fruit color (CIM) and mature fruit color (CMD), accesses 408 and IFV presented colors that greatly attract the attention of consumers, combined with the compact architectures that both have, indicate that these accesses may be promising. Finally, the characterization of ornamental pepper access proved to be a highly relevant tool for selecting genotypes that present characteristics desired by the consumer market for this type of pepper.
Few studies have investigated the effects of plant growth regulators (PGRs) on the development of native Brazilian orchids threatened with extinction and with high ornamental potential, such as Cattleya guttata Lindl. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of cytokinin and gibberellin on the early development of Cattleya guttata seedlings grown in vitro. Seedlings 120-days-old were cultured in MS medium supplemented with either 6-benzyladenine (BA; 4.44 mu mol L-1), gibberellic acid 3 (GA; 2.89 mu mol L-1), paclobutrazol (PBZ; 0.85 mu mol L-1), and BA+GA (BA: GA), or BA+PBZ (BA: PBZ) at the same concentrations. The control treatment consisted of MS medium without PGRs. After 140 days of in vitro growth, seedling development and leaf size and shape were assessed. BA supplementation significantly increased the formation of axillary shoots, resulting in modified seedling architecture. However, the simultaneous application of GA attenuated the effects of BA. Both BA and GA, whether applied individually or together, suppressed root development. When PBZ was added to the medium alone or in combination with BA, the root parameters were like the control. PBZ in the medium affected leaf morphology. BA and PBZ together produced a negative correlation between leaf width and length-width ratio. This study clarifies how cytokinin-gibberellin interactions affects in vitro growth and early development in this ornamental plant species.
Hymenocallis howardii Bauml is abulbous species belongingto the monocotyledonous family Amaryllidaceae and is distributed in southwestern Mexico. Chromosome numbers reported for the genus Hymenocallis vary widely, ranging from 2n = 24 and 2n = 110. The aim of this study was to determine the chromosome number and to conduct karyotype analysis and physical mapping of 45S and 5S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) in H. howardii. These analyses were performed in root meristematic cells using DAPI staining and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). The number of chromosomes found for this species was 96. The 45S rDNA signals were detected at two loci located in the telomeric regions of the short chromosome arms, while six loci of 5S rDNA were observed in telomeric and subtelomeric positions, also on the short arms. The karyotype formula was 64m + 30sm + 2st, and the karyotype symmetry/asymmetry indices (TF% = 40.43, AsK% = 59.56, Syi% = 67.88) indicated a slightly asymmetric karyotype, characterized by a gradual decrease in chromosome length from 10.46 & micro;m to 3.36 & micro;m, with a predominance of metacentric and submetacentric chromosomes. The presence of only two 45S rDNA sites in H. howardii suggests that it is a paleopolyploid species.
Orchids require tailored fertilization protocols, yet the high-potential native Brazilian species Oncidium baueri Lindley lacks a validated cultivation protocol. This study evaluated the effects of Bokashi organic fertilizer on its growth, nutrient allocation, and photosynthetic activity to establish the first standardized protocol for this species. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design, comparing a conventional chemical fertilizer with five Bokashi application strategies (substrate-incorporated, surface-applied, and foliar sprays) at two doses: 10 g L L-1 and 20 g L-1. Over a 12-month period, we monitored phytometric parameters (growth and biomass), chlorophyll a fluorescence, and the macronutrient and micronutrient content in different plant tissues (leaves, pseudobulbs, and roots). All Bokashi treatments outperformed the chemical control in promoting vegetative growth, with the substrate-incorporated 20 g L L-1 dose yielding the greatest increases in shoot length (359%), pseudobulb number (138%), and total biomass. The application method directly influenced nutrient partitioning; foliar sprays enhanced potassium (K) absorption in aerial tissues, while substrate-based methods were more effective for sulfur (S) and zinc (Zn). Photosynthetic efficiency (Fv/Fm) remained optimal across all treatments, indicating no physiological stress. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) confirmed these distinct tissue-specific nutrient accumulation patterns. We conclude that substrate-incorporated Bokashi is a highly effective and sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers. This study provides a scientifically validated protocol for optimizing O. baueri cultivation, contributing to both the advancement of sustainable horticultural practices and the commercial valuation of this native ornamental species.
The objective of this study is to evaluate the asexual production of Curcuma alismatifolia Gagnep. propagated either with or without reserve roots, cultivation environment, and fertilization. The experimental design was completely randomized in a 2 x 3 x 3 factorial design and six replications. The first factor was asexual propagation with and without reserve roots, the second factor was full sun or 30% or 60% of shaded environment and the third factor was fertilizer: 1-without fertilization; 2-0.3 g of phosphorus (P) per pot or 3-0.3 g of phosphorus (P) + 12 g of Osmocote (R) (Plus 15-09-12) per pot. At the end of the crop cycle, we evaluated rhizomes as for length and diameter of the largest root, number of lateral buds, shoots and T-roots, diameter of reserve roots, and total fresh mass. Generally, rhizomes propagated without reserve roots performed comparably, and in some cases, superiorly, to those propagated with reserve roots for several evaluated variables. Full sun cultivation resulted in the lowest values for the evaluated variables. Fertilization with P + Osmocote (R) significantly enhanced the analyzed variables, demonstrating greater efficiency compared to mineral fertilization with P alone. We conclude that the propagation of C. alismatifolia can be carried out without reserve roots associated with fertilization of 0.3 g of phosphorus + 12 g of Osmocote (R) in an environment with a shading of 30%.
Poucos estudos investigaram os efeitos de reguladores de crescimento vegetal (RCVs) no desenvolvimento de orquídeas brasileiras, nativas, ameaçadas de extinção e que possuem alto potencial ornamental de mercado, como é o caso da Cattleya guttata Lindl. O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar o efeito da citocinina e giberelina no desenvolvimento inicial de mudas de Cattleya guttata cultivadas in vitro. Mudas de 120 dias de idade foram cultivadas em meio MS suplementado com 6-benziladenina (BA; 4,44 μmol L -1 ), ácido giberélico 3 (GA; 2,89 μmol L-1 ), paclobutrazol (PBZ; 0,85 μmol L -1 ) e BA + GA (BA: GA) ou BA + PBZ (BA: GA) nas mesmas concentrações. O tratamento controle consistiu em meio MS sem RCVs. Após 140 dias de crescimento in vitro, o desenvolvimento das plântulas e o tamanho e a forma das folhas foram avaliados. A suplementação com BA aumentou significativamente a formação de brotos axilares, resultando em arquitetura modificada das plântulas. No entanto, a aplicação simultânea de GA atenuou os efeitos do BA. Tanto o BA quanto o GA, aplicados individualmente ou em conjunto, suprimiram o desenvolvimento radicular. Quando o PBZ foi adicionado ao meio de cultura, isoladamente ou em combinação com o BA, os parâmetros radiculares foram semelhantes aos do controle. O PBZ, no meio de cultura, afetou a morfologia foliar. A combinação de BA e PBZ resultou em correlação negativa entre a largura da folha e a relação comprimento/largura. Este estudo esclarece como as interações entre citocinina e giberelina afetam o crescimento in vitro e o desenvolvimento inicial desta espécie ornamental.
The Siam Tulip (Curcuma alismatifolia Gagnep.) is a tropical ornamental plant capable year-round growth. However, its natural flowering is limited to the rainy season, thereby limiting its commercial viability as a continuously flowering ornamental crop. This study analyzed the morphological and physiological changes during the growth and development of plant propagated from corms and evaluated the the effects of exogenous plant growth regulators on flower development in both juvenile and mature plants. The flower development of Siam Tulip can be divided into two distinct phases:(1) the floral transition phase (day 18 - 30), and (2) the flower development phase (day 30 to 72). The flower development included (i) floral organs formation and development (day 30 - 62), and (ii) inflorescence elongation and blooming (day 62 - 72). Levels of auxin, gibberellin, and cytokinin progressively increased from the vegetative to the reproductive stage, peaking during the late inflorescence development whereas abscisic acid levels rose from the vegetative phase to the floral meristem formation but gradual decline thereafter. Application of 20 mg L-1 indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) or 10 mg L-1 benzyladenine (BA) significantly accelerated floral initiation in juvenile plants and enhanced flower develoment in mature plants. Additionally, treatment with 20 mg L-1 gibberellic acid promoted the elongation of the inflorescence stem. These findings suggest that appropriate PGR treatments can effectively accelerate flowering in C. alismatifolia, thereby enhancing its commercial potential.
Abstract In vitro propagation is widely used in different crops for mass multiplication and the creation of new cultivars. While edible flowers are a part of the ornamental industry, the use of in vitro techniques for these plants has only recently begun. Considering the importance of these species, this review aimed to examine recent advances in the use of in vitro techniques for the propagation and improvement of edible flowers, highlighting their applications, challenges, and recent findings. The number of publications in this field is still limited, with most focusing on shoot proliferation. Callogenesis studies are particularly relevant as they enable the detection, identification, and production of secondary metabolites. Biotechnological approaches, such as genetic transformation and CRISPR, were also identified, though only in a few studies. In conclusion, despite ongoing research, in vitro propagation of edible flowers remains a largely unexplored area, with significant potential as new alternative food and medicinal crop.
