Many countries increasingly use nation branding as a strategic instrument to make themselves more appealing to investors, tourists, and talent. This article maps the evolution of the nation branding field between 2006 and 2025, identifies contributions and gaps in existing research, and proposes a research agenda. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive overview of nation branding mechanisms related to identity, image, and reputation. To our knowledge, this work is among the first studies to use a bibliometric approach focused on nation branding. Our findings reveal four major themes: (1) theoretical foundations, measurement, and strategic management of national image and reputation; (2) soft power, cultural governance, and the construction of national identity; (3) tourism, gastrodiplomacy, and sports as branding instruments; (4) country image, public diplomacy, and nation branding in times of crisis. These themes reveal theoretical, methodological, contextual, and managerial gaps in nation branding, suggesting directions for future research.
This qualitative inquiry looks at how rendang functions as a culinary-based city branding strategy in Payakumbuh and how food heritage contributes to urban identity, local economic development, and cultural preservation. Using a qualitative case study approach, data were collected through semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and document analysis involving local producers, cultural leaders, market actors, and government representatives. The findings reveal that rendang has become a dominant symbolic marker through which Payakumbuh is regionally recognized, strengthening consumer trust, tourism interest, and market visibility for local producers. Branding operates not only through official campaigns but also through everyday practices embedded in household production, women’s labour, and intergenerational culinary knowledge. However, the study also identifies tensions between commercialization and authenticity, particularly regarding the risk of reducing rendang to a market commodity detached from its cultural and matrilineal meanings. In addition, branding benefits remain uneven due to limited infrastructure, unstable supply chains, and unequal access to institutional support. The study concludes that sustainable culinary city branding requires inclusive governance, long-term infrastructural investment, and policies that protect cultural heritage while supporting community-based economic participation.
Aaker’s brand personality scale (BPS) is a well-established tool for evaluating brands, but its application beyond goods and services and cross-cultural contexts remains debated. This study employs a mixed-methods design: content analysis of official social media posts from ten Chinese city governments, followed by a content validity index (CVI) evaluation by seven experts and in-depth interviews to explore reasons. Results reveal notable application issues: (1) Sincerity and Excitement were the most frequently represented dimensions in official Weibo communication, whereas Sophistication appeared less consistently, and Ruggedness was nearly absent; (2) Expert CVI ratings showed that only a few traits received unanimous endorsement (e.g., down-to-earth, up-to-date); low scale-level indices indicate incomplete content coverage; and (3) Interview findings attribute gaps to the vague “city personality” definition, misaligned categorization, and varied stakeholder perceptions. By integrating social media analysis with CVI, we offer a pragmatic pathway to ensure cultural relevance and identify weak traits before the large survey validation. In practice, it connects quantitative metrics to a qualitative understanding of the city branding process and helps city governments identify gaps between the intended and stakeholder perceptions of a city’s personality. We suggest including multiple stakeholders and various personality sources when adapting the BPS into a city context.
Public diplomacy has become a central instrument of international political communication, yet the role of regime type in shaping its communicative strategies remains insufficiently explored. This article presents a cross-national quantitative study of how democratic, authoritarian, and hybrid regimes frame their public diplomacy messages. Drawing on 273 official statements published on the websites of Ministries of Foreign Affairs across 33 countries, the study applies a content analysis of 1,706 paragraphs coded for five framing dimensions (values, identity, perception, communication, and power) and three framing functions (diagnostic, prognostic, motivational). Reliability was ensured through a coding manual and intercoder agreement (Cohen’s Kappa > 0.80). Statistical analyses (χ² tests, ANOVA) were conducted using SPSS. The findings reveal significant differences across regime types. Democratic regimes emphasize universal values, dialogue, and soft power. Authoritarian regimes rely more heavily on frames of sovereignty, legitimacy, and external threats, often legitimizing hard power. Hybrid regimes combine both strategies, presenting democratic rhetoric while simultaneously reinforcing stability and security frames. The study contributes theoretically by linking framing theory with political culture and regime typologies, and empirically by providing large-scale evidence of systematic variation in public diplomacy strategies. Practically, it demonstrates how domestic regime logics structure the international narratives states project, offering new insights into the global competition for legitimacy and influence.
