The aim of this article is to compare the differing views of the well-known writers and journalists Stanisław Cat-Mackiewicz and Paweł Jasienica on the geopolitical achievements of the Piast and Jagiellon dynasties. Their assessments were largely based on their preferred geopolitical orientations (which, it seems, do not definitively belong to a long-past dispute). It is worth noting that the article is structured around a comparison of the extreme assessments of both adversaries regarding the two most important royal houses in Polish history (of the ‘most outstanding’ versus ‘worst’ ruler type), hence the chronological order reflecting the reigns of individual rulers has not been maintained.
his article presents the activities of officials involved in developing action options (threats and civil protection entities) during situational assessments of population protection and civil defense. The assessment of a situation in the decisionmaking process involves developing a draft decision for the commune head (starosta), i.e., making a specific, non-random selection of possible action options for civil protection and civil defense entities. The decision made must be communicated to others; not only the content of the decision must be communicated, but also the method of its implementation and control. The decision-making process should be viewed as an organized and logical set of actions carried out from the emergence of a decisionmaking problem, through the selection of a course of action (action option), its implementation, and finally the control of its implementation. It should form the basis for the functioning of civil protection and civil defense bodies, resources, and entities. When comparing action options, the praxeological elements of operational efficiency (effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, rationality, benefit, and ethicality) should be considered. In the variant development process, decision-making by the mayor (county head, city mayor) plays a crucial role, as a well-made decision impacts the geostrategic situation of the state and its survival. The aim of this article was to determine the activities of officials during the development, consideration, and comparison of variants at the municipal and county levels. This defined goal formed the basis for formulating the main research problem in the form of the following question: What activities are performed by individual members of civil protection and civil defense bodies and resources during the development, consideration, and comparison of variants? Theoretical (analysis, synthesis, comparison, inference) and empirical research methods (observation, experiment) were used to address the research problem. The research was conducted during training sessions on civil protection and civil defense in selected municipalities and counties in Greater Poland between September and December 2025. The experiment employed a parallel group technique. The trainees were divided into experimental and control groups. In the experimental group, independent variables were manipulated. At the end of the study, the participants' performance was compared. The experimental group achieved the best results in 90% of the experiment.
The purpose of this article is to analyze Kenya’s role in the East African regional economic system, with a particular focus on the country’s economic potential, key development challenges, and prospects for further regional integration. Kenya remains the largest and most diversified economy in East Africa, serving as a regional hub for trade, finance, transportation, and digital services. The country’s particular significance stems from its geographical location, developed logistics infrastructure, the operation of the port in Mombasa, and its active role within the East African Community (EAC). The study highlights the importance of the services sector, export agriculture, and modern technologies for Kenya’s economic growth. It also analyzes the country’s role in regional integration processes and its significance for the development of regional supply chains and trade. It is noted that Kenya remains a leader in digitalization in Sub-Saharan Africa, as evidenced by the development of mobile payment systems and the fintech sector. At the same time, the article identifies the most significant barriers to development, which include high levels of public debt, corruption, social inequalities, youth unemployment, and the negative effects of climate change. The impact of geopolitical rivalry among major powers—particularly China, the United States, and the European Union—on the country’s infrastructure and economic development was also discussed.
Geopolitical analysis often invokes “principles” linking spatial conditions with security and interstate rivalry, yet such claims are rarely specified in terms of boundary conditions, explanatory mechanisms, and falsifiability. The article addresses this gap by proposing not another list of principles, but a procedure for determining which claims qualify as geopolitical principles, which should be treated as working hypotheses, and how they can be compared. It reconstructs a working canon of geopolitical principles, treating a “principle” as a general and conditional claim grounded in the literature and supported by an explanatory mechanism. On this basis, the article clarifies the relation between geopolitics, understood as the analysis of spatial constraints, and the geostrategic dimension, understood as the translation of that diagnosis into goals, priorities, and instruments of action. The typology of classical principles is therefore auxiliary to a common matrix describing each claim through its scope conditions, mechanism, and possible indicators. Within this framework, the article also proposes several conditional additions related to geoeconomics, critical infrastructure, network dependencies, information, and resilience. The main conclusion is that geopolitical principles retain analytical value only when their scope, mechanism, and indicators are made explicit.
The aim of this text is to analyze the current state of the conflict between Pakistan and Taliban-ruled Afghanistan. The primary research method employed to accomplish this task is a case study, combined with a heuristic analysis of bilateral relations from the British Empire to the present. Due to the nature of the journal, geopolitical factors and their impact on the escalation/de-escalation potential of the current conflict will also be considered. The structure of the text is based on a causeand-effect narrative, typical of this type of analysis, characteristic of research in the history of international relations/military history.
