Abstract: Nanospheres are sub-micron-sized solid colloidal particles, typically ranging from 10 to 200 nm in diameter, that have emerged as highly effective carriers for targeted drug delivery and diagnostic applications. Owing to their unique physicochemical properties, including high surface area, tunable particle size, controlled drug release, and excellent biocompatibility, nanospheres have gained considerable attention in pharmaceutical research. These nanocarriers can encapsulate, adsorb, or conjugate therapeutic agents within a polymeric matrix, thereby protecting drugs from premature enzymatic and chemical degradation and enhancing their stability, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy. Researchers have used various biodegradable and biocompatible materials, such as albumin, gelatin, starch, polylactic acid, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), and dextran-based polymers, to fabricate nanospheres. Surface modification strategies, including polymer coating and ligand conjugation, have been extensively explored to overcome the challenges associated with opsonization and rapid clearance by the reticuloendothelial system, thereby prolonging systemic circulation and improving site-specific drug accumulation. Advanced nanosphere platforms, including magnetic, immunological, and immunomagnetic nanospheres, show strong potential in precision medicine by enabling targeted delivery, enhanced cellular uptake, and real-time monitoring of therapeutic responses. In oncology, nanosphere-based delivery systems have revolutionized cancer diagnosis and treatment by selectively transporting anticancer agents to tumor tissues while minimizing off-target toxicity and adverse effects on healthy cells. Furthermore, nanosphere-assisted biosensing technologies have shown significant promise for early cancer detection by identifying tumor- associated biomarkers, circulating tumor cells, nucleic acids, and specific proteins. These multifunctional nanoplatforms integrate diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities, paving the way for personalized, theranostic approaches to cancer management. This review comprehensively discusses the classification, preparation methods, physicochemical characteristics, and biomedical applications of nanospheres, with a particular focus on their emerging roles in cancer diagnosis, targeted drug delivery, and precision therapeutics. It also critically examines current challenges, recent technological advances, and future perspectives on the clinical translation of nanosphere-based systems.
Abstract: Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis are both classified as forms of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD). Strategies that reduce overall systemic exposure while delivering antiinflammatory drug directly to the inflamed colon are necessary for treating IBD. Flurbiprofen is an effective Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug (NSAID) with potential utility in IBD because it inhibits cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2, thereby reducing the synthesis of proinflammatory prostaglandins. However, its clinical use for IBD may be limited by gastrointestinal toxicity and the inadequate delivery of conventional oral formulations to the inflamed colonic mucosa. These limitations may result in insufficient drug concentrations at the target site while increasing systemic exposure and the risk of adverse effects. Consequently, colon-targeted flurbiprofen delivery systems are being explored to enhance local therapeutic efficacy and minimize gastrointestinal and systemic toxicity. The current status of colon-targeted drug delivery has improved recently. Flurbiprofen may be locally delivered using techniques such as pH-sensitive coatings, timed release systems, hydrogels, polysaccharide-based matrices, nanoparticles, and microbially triggered platforms. The improvement in both therapeutic efficacy and drug safety in the management of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) with flurbiprofen will depend on integrating preclinical and clinical evidence. Key considerations include current formulation approaches, colon-targeting strategies, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic variables, interspecies differences in intestinal microbiota, stability concerns, and the challenges of translating preclinical findings to humans. Future research should focus on customized delivery systems and hybrid nanocarriers for targeted flurbiprofen delivery, thereby enhancing therapeutic efficacy while minimizing systemic adverse effects.
Abstract: The chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease known as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is marked by irreparable joint damage, increasing cartilage loss, immune cell infiltration, and persistent synovial inflammation. Approximately 0.24% of people worldwide suffer from RA, with a higher frequency among women than men. Even though there are many different therapeutic options available today, such as biologic agents, synthetic drugs, and conventional disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), their clinical efficacy is frequently constrained by frequent dosing requirements, short biological half-lives, non-specific drug distribution, and systemic adverse effects. As a result, maintaining treatment efficacy while reducing toxicity continues to be a significant management problem for RA. Stimuli-responsive in situ gelling systems have been recently developed as promising localized drug delivery methods for the treatment of RA. These smart systems have sol-gel transition in response to physiological stimuli, including temperature, pH, ionic concentration, enzymes, or inflammatory mediators present in the diseased joint environment. This responsiveness allows for prolonged retention at the target site, controlled drug release, increased therapeutic efficacy, and reduced systemic exposure. This review summarizes the recent progress in stimuli-responsive in-situ gelling systems for RA therapy, with an emphasis on design principles, gelation mechanisms, formulation strategies, evaluation methods, and therapeutic applications. Special emphasis is placed on thermosensitive, pH-responsive, and ion-sensitive hydrogels and their advantages, limitations, and translational potential. Overall, these intelligent in-situ gelling platforms offer significant opportunities for improving targeted drug delivery, patient compliance, and long-term treatment outcomes in rheumatoid arthritis.
INTRODUCTION:Pharmacomicrobiomics is the interdisciplinary area of research arising from studies demonstrating that the microbiota in the human colon dynamically regulates the metabolism of many medications. This review paper discusses how this microbiota may explain some of the variability observed in patient responses to medication, and describes the role of gut-associated microbial communities in the metabolism, effectiveness, and safety of drugs. METHODS:Using important scientific databases, a thorough and methodical review of the literature was carried out with an emphasis on preclinical and clinical research examining microbiota-drug interactions. Microbial biotransformation pathways, enzyme-mediated metabolism (such as β- glucuronidases, azoreductases, and reductases), and the impact of dysbiosis, probiotics, and antibiotics on drug pharmacokinetics were important topics. New computational and microbiome-based prediction methods were also assessed. RESULTS:The gut microbiota has a substantial impact on drug bioavailability, metabolism, enterohepatic recirculation, and toxicity, according to mounting data. Anticancer, cardiovascular, and antidiabetic medications are among the many therapeutic classes whose pharmacokinetics are changed by microbial enzymatic activity. Clinically significant variability in drug response is caused by microbiome disruptions, such as dysbiosis brought on by antibiotics. Promising methods for forecasting microbiota-driven pharmacokinetic variations are provided by recent developments in pharmacomicrobiomic profiling and in silico modelling. DISCUSSION:These results highlight the gut microbiota as an important but little-known factor influencing pharmacokinetic behaviour and treatment effectiveness. Combining pharmacogenomic frameworks with microbiome data could improve tailored medication treatment. However, issues like interindividual microbial diversity, a lack of analytical method standardisation, and a lack of adequate translational models continue to be major obstacles. CONCLUSION:Drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic variability are significantly influenced by the gut microbiota-drug axis. Optimising therapeutic outcomes, reducing side effects, and advancing precision pharmacotherapy are all possible with the integration of microbiome-based insights into clinical decision-making and drug development.
Introduction: Fast-Dissolving Films (FDFs) are innovative oral drug delivery systems designed for a rapid onset of action, enhanced bioavailability, and ease of administration without water, making them ideal for pediatric, geriatric, and dysphagic patients. Methods: This review summarizes recent literature on FDF development, focusing on formulation strategies (hydrophilic polymers, plasticizers), preparation methods (solvent casting, hot-melt extrusion), and evaluation parameters (mechanical strength, drug content, dissolution, stability). Results: Advances in polymer science, nanotechnology, and taste-masking have significantly improved FDF performance. Their application spans pain management, allergies, GI disorders, and neurological conditions. However, limitations such as low drug-loading capacity, specialized packaging, and formulation complexity remain challenges. Discussion: FDFs offer a promising alternative to conventional oral dosage forms, particularly for populations with swallowing difficulties. Their potential is supported by ongoing innovation; however, issues such as scalability, stability, and drug uniformity require further exploration. Integration with personalized medicine also offers future growth opportunities. Conclusion: FDFs hold substantial potential to enhance therapeutic outcomes and patient adherence. Continued research into overcoming formulation and manufacturing challenges will be critical to their broader clinical and commercial success.
