His Eminence, Iuliu Hossu (1885-1970), the first Romanian cardinal and one of the most outstanding figures of both the Romanian Greek Catholic Church and the Romanian nation, has endured in the collective memory as a figure of profound symbolic resonance. His unwa-vering defence of the rights of Transylvanian Romanians and his historic proclamation of the Great Union Resolution at Alba Iulia on 1 December 1918 secured his legacy as a symbol of national unity. Scholarly inquiries into his pastoral endeavours and extensive canonical visitations have firmly established him in the consciousness of the clergy and the Greek Catholic faithful as a model shepherd and an authentic embodiment of Jesus Christ. His ecumenical openness, particularly during the interwar years and, more notably, between 1940 and 1944, cast him as a paragon of dialogue and solidarity—an influence that transcended the confines of his own con-fession and assumes renewed significance today through the ongoing process of his recognition as Righteous Among the Nations. These symbolic dimensions of Cardinal Iuliu Hossu—resonant and consequential within the Greek Catholic Church, Romanian history, and the international sphere—are further augmented by the symbolism of martyrdom. On 2 June 2019, His Holiness Pope Francis beatified him, together with six other Romanian Greek Catholic bishops, all of whom endured persecution and ultimately perished for their Catholic faith under the communist regime. This article seeks to illuminate the figure of Cardinal Iuliu Hossu through an exploration of the formation of his symbolic legacy, drawing upon historiographical scholarship and published documentary sources. In so doing, it shall consider the ways in which this distinguished prelate, through his life, vision, and actions—culminating in martyrdom—transcended his status as a historical figure of significance within the Church and the nation, emerging instead as a symbol of considerable complexity, whose legacy continues to serve as a source of inspiration for present and future generations.
The present study provides an overview of the main political and religious events in European his-tory that led to the Reformation of the sixteenth century, and discusses the particular traits of the reception of Reformed ideas in Transylvania, especially the church ordinances and their political impact. Emphasis is put on the Reformation in the Saxon communities of the Transylvania, who adopted a Wittenberg-inspired but nevertheless hybrid form of Reformed theological ideas. The author presents the main characteristics of the ecclesiastical and theological setup of the Universitas Saxonum and the reciprocal influence and cooperation of ecclesial and secular elites, with mental and spiritual consequences not only for the Saxons, but also for the tenant peasant communities in the Transylvanian counties.
This article investigates the career and historical significance of Nikolaos Skoulidas, a Greek physician and apothecary from Cerigo (Kythera), who served as court physician to Prince Grigore II Ghica of Moldavia between 1747 and 1748. Situated at the crossroads of the Ottoman, Venetian, and Phanariot spheres, Skoulidas's biography-reconstructed through scarce primary Venetian sources and supplemented by the also limited Romanian and Greek historiography-exemplifies the transnational circulation of medical knowledge and professional mobility in eighteenth-century Eastern Europe. The study contextualizes his appointment within the broader phenomenon of Greek physicians, often Padua-trained, who were highly valued at the Romanian Principalities' courts for their expertise and European medical education. Despite the brevity of Skoulidas's tenure and the absence of extensive medical writings, his role underscores the gradual modernization of medical practice in Moldavia and the use of foreign experts by Phanariot rulers eager to secure high-quality medical assistance. Furthermore, the article explores the socio-professional networks linking Constantinople's Greek medical practitioners with the princely courts and highlights the significance of private arrangements, such as the documented no-interest loan concerning the Skoulidas brothers' apothecary shop, in sustaining physicians' livelihoods. Ultimately, the case of Nikolaos Skoulidas illuminates the dynamic interactions between diplomacy, medicine, and cultural exchanges in the eighteenth century, offering insights into the role of Greek professionals in shaping the medical landscape of Eastern Europe on the eve of the Age of Revolutions.
Banishment is undoubtedly an ancient method of punishment. It was widespread in the Middle Ages, not only as a punishment, but also as a form of correction of behavior or coercion. The present paper focuses on the case of the city of Zagreb, a complex city in itself. Even though nu-merous studies were devoted to urban life in Zagreb, the topic of banishment(s) was never actually addressed. The preserved sources reveal the existence of (at least) 120 procedures of banishment only in the course of the fifteenth century. The sanction of banishment emerges as an alternative to fines, a flexible, potentially reversible and cheap form of punishment. Unsurprisingly, banishment was in fact a "middle path" between fines and the death penalty.
After the fall of Timisoara and the surrender of Lipova in 1552, many refugees arrived in Transyl-vania from Banat. The refugees were a mixture of Serbs, Romanians and Hungarians, who settled mainly in southern Transylvania. The market town of Teiuswas one of the host settlements, and the Serbian-and Romanian-speaking population became the majority in Teius. This community, owing to its size and its leaders who faithfully served the princes of Transylvania, managed to build an Orthodox church in Teius by the end of the sixteenth century. The study presents the ktetors of the church and clarifies the erroneous information on the noble families who patronized the building of the place of worship.
