Abuse of Soccer Referees in Canada: Associations with Anxiety and Depression Symptoms and Demographic Factors

Objective: Referee abuse has emerged as a growing concern in sport, yet its prevalence and mental health consequences remain underexamined, particularly in amateur contexts. Accordingly, we examined self-reported experiences of physical and verbal abuse among soccer referees and their associations with anxiety and depression symptoms. Method: Participants were 1,183 soccer referees (66.8% White; 80.8% men, 17.6% women, 1.6% gender diverse) from Ontario, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia, Canada. Referees reported exposure to physical and verbal abuse from parents, coaches, players, and spectators and completed measures of anxiety (Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale) and depression (Patient Health Questionnaire). Results: Abuse was widespread: 34.9% of referees reported experiencing physical abuse, and 94.2% reported verbal abuse while officiating. Contrary to hypotheses, women and racialized referees did not experience higher rates of abuse than men or White referees; men reported higher levels of physical abuse than women. Verbal abuse was positively associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression, whereas physical abuse was associated with depression but not anxiety, after controlling for age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Although gender did not significantly moderate associations between abuse and mental health outcomes, the effect sizes for verbal abuse were larger for women. Sensitivity analyses revealed a clear dose-response pattern, with referees reporting more frequent abuse exhibiting significantly higher anxiety and depression symptoms, particularly for frequent verbal abuse. Conclusions: Referee abuse in Canadian amateur soccer is both pervasive and psychologically consequential. These findings underscore the need for system-level policies and interventions to improve referees' safety and protect their mental health across all levels of sport.