This study reappraised the taxonomy of the genus Rostriconidium , and introduced a new species, Rostriconidium synnematicum , based on an integrated molecular and morphological taxonomic approach. This new taxon is the only synnematous species within Rostriconidium and forms a sister lineage to other Rostriconidium species in Torulaceae , as supported by phylogenetic analyses of ITS, LSU, SSU, rpb 2 and tef1 - α sequences using Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference methods. Additionally, a new combination Rostriconidium yunnanensis is proposed under Rostriconidium . The study addresses the taxonomic complexities of four morphologically similar but phylogenetically distinct genera ( Neopodoconis , Pseudohelminthosporium , Rostriconidium , and Sporidesmioides ) within the Pleosporales . There are a few taxonomic challenges in resolving relationships among these genera, given their polyphyletic nature and overlapping morphologies. In this study, advanced mycological studies were conducted to resolve the generic circumscription of Sporidesmioides . In this study, we propose a new familial lineage, Sporidesmioidesaceae , to accommodate the monotypic species S. thailandica , based on phylogenetic analyses of a multi-locus dataset (ITS, LSU, SSU, rpb 2, and tef1 - α ). The results also accommodate Pseudohelminthosporium within Neomassarinaceae , rather than accepting the synonymization of Pseudohelminthosporium clematidis under Neopodoconis ampullacea . The conspecific nature of P. clematidis and N. ampullacea warrants a future type-based study to validate them. These findings underscore the critical importance of examining type specimens (morphological and multi-locus sequence analysis) before proposing synonymy among cryptic species and genera. This study also revalidated the placement of the recently proposed family Megacapitulaceae and provided their multigene sequence information.

We examined the morphological characteristics of a fungal isolate belonging to the genus Hypoxylon, isolated from rhizosphere soil of Patrinia scabiosaefolia in a phosphogypsum disposal site in Kaiyang County, Guizhou Province, China. We also analyzed its DNA sequences (ITS, LSU, tub2, and rpb2) and reconstructed a multi-gene phylogeny to determine its taxonomic placement and investigate its phylogenetic relationships with known Hypoxylon species. This isolate is characterized by production of conidiomata on water agar (WA) and one-celled hyaline, and ellipsoidal conidia. DNA-based phylogenies, inferred from a multi-locus dataset, show that our new species, H. kaiyangense sp. nov. (GT4-032) is closely related to H. ticinense in a fully supported subclade within Hypoxylon (Clade 6). However, significant nucleotide differences were observed across all gene loci between H. kaiyangense, H. ticinense and related species in Clade 6. The conidia of H. ticinense are significantly smaller than those of our new species while conidia of H. haematostroma are significantly larger. The new species possesses a rough-walled virgariella-like conidiogenous structure with roughened conidiogenous cells, whereas H. ticinense has a smooth, pale olivaceous conidiogenous structure with smooth conidiogenous cells bearing denticulate conidial secession scars. The morphological and phylogenetic evidence supports recognition of our isolate from this phosphogypsum environment as a novel species, for which the name Hypoxylon kaiyangense is proposed. This study not only enriches the diversity of Hypoxylon species in China but also provides research avenues for potential exploitation of such fungi in ecological restoration and bioremediation.

During a survey of the high-value fungal diversity in Yunnan, China, a new species of Tuber was identified on the basis of its morphological characteristics and combined molecular analyses of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), nuclear large subunit ribosomal RNA (nrLSU), translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1-α), and RNA polymerase II subunit (rpb2) data. The novel species is characterized by small ascomata with a distinct cavity. The ascospores are covered with free apical spines and low ridges, forming an irregular reticulum 5–7 meshes across the spore width. Phylogenetic analyses using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods showed a distinct position of the new species among known species belonging to the group Melanosporum, with significant statistical support. Color photographs of the ascomata, micromorphological structures based on scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the ascospores, and an updated phylogenetic tree of Tuber are also provided in this study.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMFs) are well known to establish symbiotic associations with plant roots, and assist to enhance nutrient uptake and contribute to improve soil structure and fertility. This study investigated the AMF diversity and physiochemical properties of rhizosphere soil associated with three ethno-medicinal plants—Inula racemosa, Saussurea costus (cultivated), and Hyoscyamus niger (wild) from cold desert areas of Himachal Pradesh, India. Results showed that soil samples were moderately alkaline (pH 7.17–8.23), with low to medium levels of organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium. Cultivated soils showed higher macronutrient levels than noncultivated lands. Principal component analysis indicated a positive correlation between root colonization and pH, organic carbon, and phosphorus, while a negative correlation was found with electric conductivity, nitrogen, and potassium. Root colonization varied across medicinal plants, with Glomus and Acaulospora being the dominant AMF genera. A total of 14 arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal species from 6 genera were identified. The study indicates a potentially rich diversity of AMFs in cold desert ecosystems, particularly within the Glomeraceae family. Utilizing these AMFs in off site cultivation and conservation efforts, through single spore cultures or AMF consortia, could be beneficial for promoting sustainable growth of these valuable plants.

The Arabian killifish ( Aphaniops dispar ) is a resilient freshwater species capable of surviving extreme environments, making it a valuable model for studying evolutionary adaptation in challenging environments. This study provides baseline genetic information of A. dispar populations from Saudi Arabian Wadis (Saul and Zaban) based on mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene sequencing. Our analyses of the 542 bp fragment revealed 58 polymorphic sites. Pairwise genetic distances (Kimura 2-parameter) indicated moderate divergence (0.00–0.12), with the highest differentiation observed between wadi saul populations. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed significant genetic structuring, with 67.3% of variation attributed to regional differences. ABBA-BABA tests on genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data revealed historical hybridization with Aphaniops fasciatus (D = 0.32, p < 0.001). While the 12S rRNA marker confirms broad phylogeographic patterns, these findings highlight the value of multi-faceted genomic approaches for understanding the evolution of A. dispar . To our knowledge, this is the first report of A. dispar on genetic diversity in the Asir region of Saudi Arabia.

A survey of lignicolous freshwater fungi in Yunnan Province, China, resulted in the discovery of a new species, Aquimassariosphaeria yunnanensis. Morphological characteristics are described, and DNA sequences from ribosomal and protein-coding loci are analyzed to determine its phylogenetic relationships with other related species in the genus Aquimassariosphaeria. Aquimassariosphaeria yunnanensis sp. nov. is typical of the genus and characterized by micro- to macronematous, unbranched conidiophores that extend laterally, forming integrated, monoblastic, cylindrical, pale to dark brown conidiogenous cells, and long, solitary, scolecosporous, unbranched, multiseptate, smooth-walled, grayish brown to dark brown conidia that proliferate apically. Multigene phylogenetic analyses of a combined ITS, LSU, SSU, tef1-alpha, and rpb2 DNA sequence dataset generated from Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference analyses indicated that A. yunnanensis forms a separate branch and is closely related to other species in Aquimassariosphaeria (Lindgomycetaceae, Pleosporales). Results from the pairwise homoplasy index (PHI) tests revealed no significant genetic recombination (Phi w = 1.0) between A. yunnanensis and closely related species, A. aquatica and A. typhicola. This study provides a detailed morphological description and illustration of A. yunnanensis and an updated phylogeny of the family Lindgomycetaceae in Pleosporales.

Despite the unique and diverse landscapes of Saudi Arabia, its fungi have not been comprehensively documented. This study compiles and categorizes available records of fungi, reported from Saudi Arabia through an extensive literature review. Data were collected from various sources, including book chapters, review articles, research papers, case studies, reports, conference proceedings, abstracts, and dissertations. More than 1000 articles were retrieved from major academic databases such as ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and the Web of Science. Relevant information was extracted to categorize fungal taxa according to their taxonomic ranks, host associations, substrates, and life modes. A total of 852 fungal species are documented, representing ten phyla, 33 classes, 80 orders, 168 families, and 395 genera. The taxonomic analysis revealed a dominance of Ascomycota (88.3%), followed by Mucoromycota (5.3%) and Basidiomycota (3.7%). At the class level, Eurotiomycetes (38.6%), Dothideomycetes (20.4%), and Sordariomycetes (19.7%) were most prevalent, with Eurotiales as the leading order (36.1%) and Aspergillaceae as the dominant family (34.8%). Substrate‐based analysis showed that plant material (34.4%) and soil (25.3%) contain the largest share of occurrence records in the region. Over 500 species from 180 genera were associated with plant substrates, with Aspergillus , Penicillium and Fusarium being the most frequently recorded genera. Key agricultural hosts included Triticum vulgare (wheat), Phoenix dactylifera (date palm), and Zea mays (maize), as well as several legumes; notably, more than 61% of plant‐associated fungi were reported as pathogenic. Seed‐associated fungi accounted for 40.8% of all plant‐related records. In soil, 161 genera were identified, with Aspergillus and Penicillium being predominant. Fungi were also widely reported from non‐plant substrates: clinical and anatomical materials (13.6% of records) yielded over 170 species in 108 genera, with Candida , Aspergillus and Trichophyton most common. Airborne fungi accounted for 138 species across 115 genera, while dust samples yielded 139 species from 55 genera. Animal‐derived materials hosted 93 species, including frequent reports of Beauveria bassiana from insect hosts and over 66 species were identified in animal feedstuffs, highlighting food safety and mycotoxin concerns. Water and sediment environments, particularly mangrove ecosystems, supported diverse taxa such as Acremonium , Alternaria , Aspergillus , and Cladosporium . Desert truffles harbored unique fungal communities dominated by Aspergillus and Mucor . At the species level, the fungal assemblage was dominated by cosmopolitan, clinically, and agriculturally significant taxa, with Aspergillus flavus , A . niger , and Alternaria alternata among the most frequently reported. Most fungal research in Saudi Arabia has focused on pathogenic and economically important species. Over the past 53 years (1972–2025), fungal research in Saudi Arabia has risen steadily, reflecting growing recognition of their importance to agriculture, public health and ecosystem processes. This article provides a baseline data on fungi for future studies and the development of sustainable management strategies for fungal resources and related ecosystem services in arid and semiarid environments.

Two Periconia species, P. bharata sp. nov. and P. thailandica, a new record for India, collected from Ochlandra travancorica and Bambusa vulgaris, respectively, from Kerala, India, are described herein. The new species is characterised by its branched setuliform conidiophores with distinctive mono or polyblastic conidiogenous cells which resembles species of Trichobotrys. Phylogenetic analyses of combined LSU, ITS, SSU, and tef1-alpha sequence data using Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference methods place P. bharata as a sister taxon to P. muchuanensis with strong statistical support within Periconiaceae. This study also reports P. thailandica for the first time from India. Additionally, MALDI-TOF MS data were also generated and integrated to support the rapid detection of these species in the future.

Fungi represent a kingdom of life with vast, undiscovered diversity. In the unique man-made ecosystem of the Kunming World Horticultural Expo Garden, a site with remarkable plant diversity, four fungal strains were isolated from diseased branches of two widely cultivated plants, Olea europaea (olive) and Nandina domestica. Through a comprehensive analysis integrating morphological characteristics and multi-locus phylogenetic data (including LSU, SSU, ITS, rpb2, tef1-α, and tub2 sequences), we identified two new species: Oedohysterium oleae and Melomastia kunmingensis, both of which are phylogenetically and morphologically distinct from known species. Furthermore, we report M. kevinhydei as a new host record on O. europaea, suggesting a broader host range for this species, and, for the first time, document the sexual morph of the type species Parapyrenochaeta protearum, providing crucial morphological insights for this genus, previously known only in its asexual state. These findings underscore the immense value of unique horticultural environments as reservoirs of fungal diversity.

The Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, located in northern China, represents a temperate semi-arid ecosystem dominated by steppe vegetation and characterized by rich, yet understudied, fungal diversity. During an investigation of microfungi associated with decaying plant materials in the desert regions of Inner Mongolia, two novel species of Comoclathris were collected and isolated. Detailed morphological examinations and multi-locus phylogenetic analyses based on ITS, LSU, SSU, and rpb2 sequence data support the establishment of these taxa as novel species: Comoclathris desertica and C. xiangshawanensis. These two species are described and illustrated herein, with particular attention to their differences from similar species with respect to ascomatal structures and ascospore morphology. The discovery of these new taxa expands the known diversity and distribution of Comoclathris in China and provides new insights into the saprobic fungal communities of semi-arid regions. This study also highlights the ecological and taxonomic significance of continued surveys on saprobic fungi in grassland and desert ecosystems of northern China.

Marine fungi associated with sponges and brown algae are promising sources of pharmacologically active compounds. This study investigated the cytotoxic potential and metabolomic profiles of fungal strains isolated from the marine environment of Mauritius. Among the twenty extracts screened, the mycelium extracts were more cytotoxic than the broth extracts. Four extracts demonstrated the most potent activity: Aspergillus chevalieri (F2M), Aspergillus ochraceus (F25M) and Biatriospora sp. (F34M, F34B). The algal endophyte Aspergillus chevalieri (F2M) mycelium extract displayed an IC50 of 14.27 ± 1.22 µg/mL after 24 h against HepG2 cells. The sponge-associated fungi Aspergillus ochraceus (F25M) showed promising cytotoxic activities against HepG2 cells (IC50 of 8.775 ± 0.78 µg/mL) after 24 h of treatment, with a selectivity index of 2.27, and had the lowest IC50 (2.49 ± 0.60 µg/mL after 24 h; 7.14 ± 3.14 µg/mL after 48 h) against FLO-1 cells, also reducing tumor spheroid growth and integrity during the first four hours. All four extracts increased the intracellular ROS production, but only the mycelium extract of A. chevalieri (F2M) significantly increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity. Metabolomic profiling identified diverse compound classes, including alkaloids, terpenoids, amino acids, anthraquinones and coumarins. The findings revealed that the marine fungi from Mauritius are promising sources of cytotoxic metabolites that require purification and subsequent confirmation and mechanistic studies.

Cannabis sativa L., widely known as hemp or cannabis, has been cultivated for centuries and also legalized in several countries around the world. In Thailand, permits to use cannabis only for medical and licensed purposes are allowed, and hemp (tetrahydrocannabinol [THC] < 0.2%), is legal for general use. The rapid expansion of hemp cultivation has increased the crop's susceptibility to fungal diseases. Species of the genus Fusarium are major phytopathogens, although they may also exist as endophytes. During a survey of pathogenic fungi in Northern Thailand, diseased stems of C. sativa were collected, from which a novel Fusarium species, F. flavens sp. nov., was isolated. Identification was performed using both morphological features and analyses of DNA sequence data. Phylogenetic trees were constructed based on analyses of combined dataset of the translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1-α), RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (rpb2), and calmodulin (cal) gene regions. A combined taxonomic approach of morphological comparisons and multi-locus phylogenetic analyses confirmed the distinctiveness of the species. Pathogenicity was assessed by inoculating spore suspensions and mycelium plugs on hemp leaves, stems, and seedlings. Typical symptoms were reproduced, including leaf and stem wilting and root rot. Re-isolation and re-identification of the same fungus confirmed Koch's postulates. Based on this comprehensive approach, F. flavens was identified as the causal agent of stem and root rot in hemp. This study highlights the significance of F. flavens as a novel pathogen of hemp and emphasizes the importance of integrating morphology, molecular phylogenetics, and pathogenicity tests to clarify its role in hemp diseases.

This article is the 19th contribution to the fungal diversity notes series, in which 106 taxa distributed in 3 phyla, 11 classes, 35 orders, and 64 families are treated. Taxa described in the present study include a new family, 5 new genera, 69 new species, 3 new combinations, 25 new host, habitat, and geographical records, a new name, a new collection, as well as reinstating a previously suppressed genus. The newly established family is Parasporidesmiaceae and the five new genera described herein are Dematiodidymosporum, Neoacrogenospora, Parasporidesmium, Speluncomyces, and Uniomyces. The 69 new species are Acrocalymma triseptatum, Agaricus darjeelingensis, Annellophorella aquatica, Anteaglonium menghaiense, Balsamia microspora, Bambusicola dehongensis, Barriopsis menglaense, Benjaminiomyces bergonzoi, Camporesiomyces aquaticus, Camporesiomyces wurfbainiae, Cercospora palmata, Chrysomphalina cantharella, Colletotrichum heteropanacicola, Conioscypha guizhouensis, Conioscypha yadongensis, Cora dalfornoae, Cylindromonium brasiliense, Dematiodidymosporum aquaticum, Distoseptispora dinghuensis, Distoseptispora zunyiensis, Ebollia neocarnea, Eudimeromyces aequatorialis, Eudimeromyces euconni, Funalia indica, Fuscosporella ovalis, Fuscosporella yunnanensis, Halobasidium csapodyae, Halokirschsteiniothelia hunanensis, Hongkongmyces xishuangbannaensis, Inocybe ispartaensis, Laboulbenia neofrancoisiana, Lachnella kunmingensis, Lasmenia thailandica, Leptospora cannabini, Lycoperdon sridharii, Myxospora neomasonii, Natipusilla aquatica, Neoacrogenospora aquatica, Neomassaria sinensis, Neovaginatispora juglandis, Niesslia yunnanensis, Ophiocordyceps aseptatospora, Oxneriaria sheosarensis, Paramicrosphaeropsis vitis, Paramyrothecium strychni, Parapaucispora aquatica, Parasporidesmium aquaticum, Parmelia neosaxatilis, Periconia bambusicola, Periconia neohongheensis, Peroneutypa thailandica, Polyozellus albus, Porina magnoliae, Porostereum subspadiceum, Pseudosperma subvolvatum, Pseudothyridariella caseariae, Rhexocercosporidium ferulae, Russula rubroglutinata, Septoriella iranica, Seriascoma asexuale, Sesquicillium flavum, Sirastachys zhongkaiensis, Speluncomyces lunatus, Sporidesmiella yunnanensis, Striaticonidium xishuangbannaensis, Trametopsis indica, Tulostoma hyderabadensis, Uniomyces hakkeijimanus, and Virgaria guizhouensis. The three new combinations are Lycoperdon alpinum, Lycoperdon lloydii, and Lycoperdon macrogemmae. The 25 new records comprise Acremonium sclerotigenum, Agroathelia rolfsii, Alfaria terrestris, Aspergillus cejpii, Colletotrichum brevisporum, Coriolopsis brunneoleuca, Coriolopsis hainanensis, Cytospora tamaricicola, Fomitopsis malicola, Fulvifomes fastuosus, Fulvifomes thailandicus, Funalia cystidiata, Funalia subgallica, Longididymella vitalbae, Lopharia mirabilis, Metarhizium viridulum, Neopestalotiopsis haikouensis, Occultibambusa aquatica, Phaeoacremonium scolyti, Phaeocytostroma virdimurae, Puccinia mysuruensis, Rhizopus stolonifer, Serpula similis, Trametes ellipsospora, and Vamsapriya shiwandashanensis. In addition, the new name is Irpiciporus pseudoxuchilensis, and the new collection is Aspergillus sydowii. The previously suppressed genus Eudimeromyces has been taxonomically reinstated.

The subclass Savoryellomycetidae (Sordariomycetes, Ascomycota) primarily consists of fungal saprobes on decayed wood from freshwater habitats. They are widely distributed worldwide with a higher diversity in Asia. This study comprehensively examines freshwater Savoryellomycetidae species in China, focusing on their diversity, taxonomy, phylogeny, and biogeography. A comprehensive multigene phylogenetic analysis of Savoryellomycetidae was performed to provide better taxonomic insights and classification of known species, resulting in the identification of 38 species, with detailed sample collection sites also provided. Among these, ten new species and three new combinations are introduced. Nine species are newly recorded in China. Both sexual and asexual morphs of Ascolacicola aquatica and Phaeoisaria filiformis are described. Additionally, some taxonomic uncertainties within existing classifications have been resolved through phylogenetic analyses and morphological characteristics. Furthermore, by integrating our data with previous studies, a biogeographic analysis of Savoryellomycetidae is conducted. This not only accurately depicts the number of species in this subclass but also reveals the global distribution of freshwater Savoryellomycetidae species. This study contributes valuable insights into the species diversity of Savoryellomycetidae fungi in freshwater habitats and offers a clearer understanding of the systematic relationships among taxa in this subclass.

Most species of Melanommataceae are saprobic on decayed parts of various plants in tropical and temperate terrestrial habitats. During a survey of microfungi associated with terrestrial plants in Uzbekistan, two melanommataceous taxa were collected from dead branches of Rosaecae (Rosaceae) and Salviakarelinii (Lamiaceae). This study introduces a new species, Melanocucurbitariauktampratovii, and provides a new host and sexual morph record for Melanocamarosporioidesugamica, based on morphological observations and multi-gene phylogenetic analyses of concatenated LSU, SSU, ITS, and TEF-1 sequence data. Melanocucurbitariauktampratovii is the second species described within this genus and differs from the type species of Melanocucurbitaria in having smaller ascomata, smaller asci, smaller ascospores, and a different number of septa. The sexual morph of Melanocamarosporioidesugamica is characterized by globose to ovoid ascomata, cylindrical-clavate asci, ellipsoidal, muriform ascospores with 5-7 transversely septate, and 5-11 vertical septa. Illustrations and descriptions are provided, along with ecological and morphological comparisons of similar species within their respective genera.

Taxonomic studies of the Arabian toad (Sclerophrys arabica) are of great interest to better understand phylogenetic relationships and their differences in morphology and distribution. In this study, the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of the Sclerophrys arabica are investigated utilizing the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene. Tissue samples from 30 individuals were obtained from various places in Taif, Saudi Arabia, and following DNA extraction, PCR and sequencing, phylogenetic analyses were performed. Phylogenetic investigation using Maximum Likelihood (ML) methods found that S. arabica belongs to a separate clade within the Bufonidae family, closely related to Sclerophrys gutturalis, and exhibits no gene flow with other toad species. Sclerophrys arabica's strong phylogenetic relationships to other Sclerophrys species support the genus' monophyly, but its relatively distant position from other species also reflects evolutionary separations within the Bufonidae family. This research demonstrates the utility of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene as a reliable genetic marker in amphibian phylogeny, contributing to our understanding of species relationships and providing a basis for future taxonomic and conservation work.

The marine dinoflagellate genera Coolia Meunier and Ostreopsis Schmidt have been reported in the Western Indian Ocean and include potentially harmful species. However, no comprehensive observations have been reported in Mauritian waters. The primary aim of this study was to isolate, identify and characterize potentially toxic epiphytic Coolia and Ostreopsis species from the coastal waters of Mauritius. Morphological characteristics were examined using light/fluorescence microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The morphologies of the Coolia and Ostreopsis strains were similar to those of Coolia canariensis and Ostreopsis ovata. The phylogenetic analyses (large subunit ribosomal [LSU] rDNA D1/D2) revealed that the Mauritian strains of Coolia canariensis and Ostreopsis ovata clustered within the clades of these species complexes with other isolates from different areas. This represents the first record of Coolia canariensis in Mauritius, ascribed to C. canariensis phylogroups I and V, with the latter representing a new lineage of this species complex. The findings broaden the current body of knowledge of Coolia canariensis lineages, while the additional information of Ostreopsis ovata further supports the presence of an Indo-Pacific lineage.

Fungal endophytes have generally been considered as hidden microorganisms that reside asymptomatically within plant tissues and have been exploited for their potential in medicine and plant pathology. They are ubiquitous and associated with nearly all plant species sampled. Even though the exact roles of endophytic fungi within a plant is yet to be established, many speculate that they play important roles in obtaining nutrients and thus improve plant growth, confer plant immunity and promote resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses. It has been postulated that endophytes can exhibit different lifestyles and can even switch lifestyle (i.e., from endophytic to pathogenic or saprobic depending upon plant growth stages). However, there is limited evidence as to whether this switch really happens in vivo. Along the same line, with increasing knowledge of endophytic diversity, defining endophytes has not been easy given their multifaceted functions. The present study provides an updated account with comprehensive knowledge on several aspects including problems with existing definitions, isolation and identification techniques, theoretical and experimental evidence of the role of endophytes, contribution to fungal diversity as well as agenda for future research avenues. For years there has been a number of controversies and debates surrounding as to what exactly is an endophyte. Most of the previous definitions were ephemeral in nature and rather vague and could not realistically define an endophyte. Taking into account numerous biological aspects, we propose herein that endophytes can be defined as “asymptomatic microbial partners that are intimately associated and co-inhabit within healthy internal plant tissues with the ability to confer benefits, co-evolve and alter their lifestyle depending upon plant life stages and adverse conditions”. We also discuss the evolution of endophytes based on fossil data and their co-evolution with their host partners. Studies on fungal endophytes have relied mostly on culture-dependent methods to enable their characterization. However, it is generally well known that these methods suffer drawbacks and there is a need to address the challenges associated with lack of sporulation to enable morphological characterization, slow growth on artificial media, as well as contamination issues. These issues are discussed and addressed in detail here. The molecular mechanisms underlying endophytic colonization, avoidance of plant defense mechanisms, lifestyle changes, as well as their genomics and transcriptomics, are also reviewed. We analyze the possibility of endophytes being host-specific or associated with certain hosts and finally provide an account of their economic importance. This outline of fungal endophytes will provide a more comprehensive understanding of endophytes and can serve for boost research into the exploration and their potential applications in the future.

Diabetes mellitus is a persisting disorder with increasing prevalence all over the world with 280,442 cases in Mauritius. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is the outcome from the synergy of genetic and environmental factors which trigger insulin resistance, followed by severe health complications including non-healing foot wounds, gangrene, amputation, among others. Microbes either have a symbiotic balance with mankind or exist as pathogens causing internal harm to the body. Proteus species, Enterococcus species, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella species, Bacillus species, Acinetobacter species, Serratia marcescens, Enterobacter species, Morganella morganii, Citobacter koseri and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have been isolated from non-healing wounds. While ensuring the wellbeing of the population, pathogen adversaries previously led to the discovery and presently the overuse of antibiotics due to their pharmaceutical properties. Scientists have been motivated to search for new bioactive compounds with novel mode of action since lately, commonly used synthetic antibiotics are no longer effective against microorganisms which have led to antimicrobial resistance. Despite several strategies, drug evolution continues to fail which have triggered the thought that the streamline of drugs is overseen. Indigenous and traditional