Anthropogenic activities and climate change have led to substantial grassland degradation, which can profoundly affect ecosystem carbon (C) cycling. However, the impact of degradation on soil organic carbon (SOC) and its active fractions on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) remains unclear. Here, a meta-analysis of 417 soil profile datasets (0-100 cm) from 40 experimental studies was conducted to examine the alterations in SOC and its active fractions in alpine grasslands on the QTP following degradation. The results indicated that degradation led to a 51.33% decrease in SOC and its active fractions: particulate organic carbon (POC) decreased by 59.18%, easily oxidized organic carbon (EOC) by 51.05%, light fraction organic carbon (LFOC) by 40.10%, microbial biomass carbon (MBC) by 34.30%, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) by 30.96%. Degradation reduced aboveground biomass, resulted in decreased C input and heightened soil erosion, culminating in an enhanced loss of DOC. In comparison to steppes, alpine meadows exhibit a superior ability for C retention. DOC and EOC decreased at a higher rate in the mixed C-3-C-4 grassland compared to the C-3-dominated grassland. Degradation decreased soil nitrogen and phosphorus content, prompting microbes to accelerate the SOC decomposition, which led to a decline in EOC and POC. Soil depth may diminish the sensitivity of active C to degradation responses, particularly MBC and LFOC, likely because higher soil moisture levels and fostering more favorable conditions for microbes in deeper soil layers. The negative effect of degradation on SOC active fractions decreased when MAT >= 1 degrees C and MAP > 700 mm, due to a prolonged growth season thus boosted photosynthesis. The rates of C loss were notably higher at elevations <= 3800 m. Our results can contribute to an in-depth understanding of soil C dynamics following degradation, and offer a conceptual framework for managing grassland C pools.

The rapid expansion of utility-scale photovoltaic (PV) power plants has substantially altered land use and land cover, with vegetation change serving as a key ecological indicator. Based on a global database of 171 study records published or available online between 2010 and July 2026, this review systematically analysed the impact patterns and driving mechanisms of PV plants on vegetation. The results showed that vegetation responses were strongly dependent on land-cover context. Across all 171 study records, positive, negative, and complex mixed outcomes accounted for 35.1%, 25.1%, and 39.8%, respectively; positive outcomes were most frequently reported in barren lands (16/19, 84.2%), whereas grassland and cropland systems showed more heterogeneous and context-dependent responses. In grasslands, complex trade-offs occur between water gains and light losses. In croplands, crop responses were strongly differentiated; staple crops generally experienced yield reductions, whereas some shade-tolerant or high-value crops showed potential productivity gains. Although field-based monitoring, remote sensing, and modelling are primary methods, single approaches fail to capture complex dynamics, highlighting the need for multisource integration. In this study, an integrated framework for systematic evaluation and synergetic management is proposed to support eco-friendly PV layouts and regulate the "energy‒food-ecology" nexus.

Root exudate-induced priming effect (PE) is a key process that regulates soil organic carbon (SOC) turnover. Our comprehensive study provides mechanistic insights into how soil microbial community structure and its metabolic characteristics for carbon and nutrients of carbon and nutrients regulate PE induced by root exudates from grassland tumbleweeds. We investigated these processes through controlled incubation experiments with soils from four grazing intensities (grazing exclusion vs. light, moderate, and heavy grazing) and exudates obtained from two tumbleweeds (Cleistogenes squarrosa and Saposhnikovia divaricata) and the dominant perennial Leymus chinensis. The tumbleweed exudates consistently produced PE that averaged 45.9% lower per unit exudate carbon than with L. chinensis across grazing intensities, primarily due to their substantially higher organic acid content (particularly fumaric and oxalic acids), which suppressed Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria biomass, thereby alleviating the soil available phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) radio imbalance. PE had pronounced temporal dynamics, transitioning from an initial phase (day 3) characterized by high microbial metabolism and minimal PE, through an intermediate stage (day 10) of positive PE, to a final phase (day 21) of strongly positive PE as labile carbon substrates were depleted and microbial communities progressively shifted from bacterial-dominated to fungal-dominated, thereby intensifying nutrient mining for nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). The available P: N imbalance consistently increased PE throughout the incubation period, with progressively strengthening effects over time, ultimately emerging as the primary regulator of SOC mineralization. These findings establish that tumbleweeds create distinctive “low-PE patches” through exudate-mediated microbial community restructuring and stoichiometric balance regulation, thereby offering a promising nature-based solution for increasing soil carbon sequestration and facilitating ecological restoration in degraded grassland ecosystems.

The accelerated development of solar photovoltaic (PV) is crucial for achieving global climate goals, yet it poses significant ecological challenges due to the extensive land occupation. The “PV + ” land use model could be a countermeasure. By quantifying the ecological cost of multiple PV expansion scenarios in China and the potential ecological compensation capacity of “PV + ” model, we present an optimized energy expansion pathway. From the perspective of ecosystem services, we found that historical PV expansion caused an ecological loss of $2.15 billion (0.78 USD/m2). Without energy pathway optimization, the accelerated expansion required to meet 2050 targets would lead to ecological losses of $18.56 to $37.11 billion. However, pathway optimization can reduce those losses by 58–81%. Our analysis based on field investigations revealed that the "PV + " system holds significant potential for ecological compensation. Agriculture–PV has the highest capacity (0.63 USD/m2), even exceeding the pre-construction value of cropland, while Grassland–PV and Gobi and Desert-PV also achieve ecological restoration. Prioritizing the development of suitable land or barren land is the optimal expansion path to achieve a triple-win situation in energy, economics, and ecology. The power generation capacity of these pathways could reach 7.21–19.75 PWh annually by 2050, while reducing ecological costs to 0.09–0.19 USD/m2. This study provides guidance for ecologically considerate PV expansion planning and supports the sustainable management of PV power plants, offering a replicable solution for optimizing global renewable energy expansion.

Context: Anthropogenic nitrogen (N) deposition disrupts the grassland ecological stoichiometric balance and alters the uptake of phosphorus (P) by grassland plants, thereby affecting the growth of forage crops. However, the specific mechanisms through which soil N availability regulates integrated plant P-acquisition strategies, encompassing root morphology, physiology, and microbial partnerships, are not fully understood. Methods: We conducted a N addition experiment with three levels (Control, N5, N10) in a temperate steppe, using the dominant grass Leymus chinensis to elucidate these mechanisms. To further investigate whether P availability alters this pattern, we implemented two P treatments (no P and P5 addition) in addition to the above design. Results: Moderate N addition exhibited the highest P-uptake rate (PUR), increasing it by 19.4-47.6 % compared to the no-nitrogen treatment. Synergistic enhancements in PUR were supported by significant increases in specific root length (16.7-108 %), the stele diameter to cortex thickness ratio (14.2-22.9 %), and root exudation rate (15.1-105 %). N5 increased arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal abundance, but decreased microbial biomass, whereas N5P5 showed the opposite pattern, indicating that P availability influences Leymus chinensis' selection of microbial partners. In contrast, both N10 and N10P5 treatments reduced root non-structural carbohydrates, leading to decreased relative abundances of Acidobacteriota and Ascomycota while increasing pathogen abundance. This antagonistic relationship not only decreased PUR but also increased plant disease risk. Under the relatively arid conditions of 2023, PUR decreased by 55-90 % yet was significantly influenced by N-P interaction, with the environmental stress sharpening plant sensitivity to the N-P balance and amplifying both the synergistic and antagonistic P acquisition strategies mediated by N levels. Critically, soil P availability mediated a fundamental trade-off: under P-deficient conditions, plants adopted an "outsourcing" strategy by investing carbon in AMF symbiosis, resulting in a 26.1-48.3 % increase in colonization rate. Under P-sufficient conditions, they shifted to a "do-it-yourself" strategy, which involved reducing microbial carbon investment and increasing specific root length for direct P uptake. Conclusions: Leymus chinensis P-acquisition is governed by a multi-tiered strategy. Moderate N supply mobilizes diverse P-acquisition strategies and plant-microbial synergism, whereas higher N shifts this synergy into antagonism, with detrimental effects on forage growth. Significance: This study highlights the importance of a holistic plant-microbe perspective for predicting grassland responses to global change. Furthermore, grassland managers should improve monitoring of N deposition to mitigate antagonistic interactions and plant disease risks induced by high N.

Soil inorganic carbon (SIC) is a crucial carbon sink in terrestrial ecosystems. However, compared with soil organic carbon (SOC), SIC has received limited attention-particularly regarding its complex feedback mechanisms with human activities, which remain poorly understood. Based on 351 datasets from 24 domestic and international publications from 2000 to 2024, we conducted a Meta-analysis to investigate changes in SIC content in northern China's croplands under inorganic fertilization. Additionally, we combined multiple factors, such as climate, soil, and crop factors, to comprehensively explore the impact of inorganic fertilization on SIC content. The results showed that nitrogen addition significantly increased SIC content by 8%-28%, while combined nitrogen-phosphorus (NP) fertilization exerted significant negative effects on SIC. When fertilization duration exceeded 10 years or SOC content was high, inorganic fertilization could induce soil acidification, thereby promoting SIC dissolution and reducing its content. Surface soil exhibited stronger microbial activity, greater acidification, and higher moisture content compared to that in deeper soil layers, thereby enhancing SIC sensitivity to fertilization. During the initial establishment phase of fragrant pear orchards (&lt;10 years), litter accumulation and improved soil pore structure facilitated carbonate accumulation, contributing to increased SIC content. As elevation decreased or the frost-free periods extended, rising temperatures promoted the accumulation of SIC under inorganic fertilization. Under high precipitation/low evaporation conditions, the increase of CO2 partial pressure in soil pore water would promote the dissolution and migration of carbonates, which was not conducive to the storage of SIC. Agricultural strategies such as organic-inorganic fertilizer co-application, plastic mulching, and economic forest development could mitigate the negative effects of sole inorganic fertilization. This study provides a scientific basis for optimizing fertilization management in northern China's farmland, enhancing the carbon sink function of farmland soil, and responding to global climate change.

Root exudates mobilize soil nutrients and create an important pathway for plants to obtain resources. Understanding nutrient-acquisition strategies based on root exudation by coexisting grassland species is crucial for vegetation regrowth and productivity after grazing. We analyzed the nutrient-acquisition strategies and productivity maintenance mechanisms of Leymus chinensis, Stipa grandis and Cleistogenes squarrosa over two consecutive years in a long-term grazing experimental plot in a typical grassland in Inner Mongolia. Grazing significantly promoted the root exudation rates of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and organic acids. Grazing increased the maximum quantum efficiency of photosystem II, root salicylic acid, and total soluble sugars (TSS), which increased root exudation by improving competitive traits such as root nitrogen (RN) and specific root area (SRA), while reducing tissue-construction traits such as root tissue density (RTD). This shift led L. chinensis to adopt a competitive strategy. Stipa grandis exhibited a higher net photosynthetic rate and non-photochemical quenching, which promoted C and organic acid exudation, thereby increasing specific root length (SRL). Nitrogen exudation further increased RTD, resulting in a conservative strategy. Cleistogenes squarrosa demonstrated a higher carboxylation efficiency, electron transport rate, and TSS, which promoted N and organic acid exudation, and increased SRA and RTD, whereas C exudation increased RN, forming a facultative nutrient-acquisition strategy. These processes mobilized rhizosphere soil nutrients, especially ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N), and thereby improved aboveground productivity. Our results highlight the importance of plant metabolite in regulating changes in root exudation rates. Furthermore, the trade-offs between plant root exudation and root morphology determined the strategy of belowground resource acquisition, and the mobilization of soil nitrogen and other nutrients. Our results have important theoretical and practical implications for understanding the coexistence of grassland species under grazing pressure and for developing restoration strategies for degraded grasslands.

Grassland degradation threatens global soil carbon (C) stocks, yet the mechanisms by which wind-dispersed tumbleweeds regulate soil C stabilization remain insufficiently resolved, particularly regarding how litter-driven priming effects (PE) and the partitioning of litter-derived C into particulate organic carbon (POC) and mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC) respond to grazing intensity. We conducted a 13C/15N-labeled litter incubation experiment using soils collected from a long-term grazing intensity gradient (non-grazing, light, moderate, and heavy grazing). Litter derived from two tumbleweed species (Cleistogenes squarrosa and Saposhnikovia divaricata) and the dominant grass Leymus chinensis was added individually and in mixtures to soils from each grazing treatment for incubation. S. divaricata and its mixtures rapidly releases C and nutrients, stimulating microbial activity and thereby suppressing microbial mineralization of native SOC. Compared to L. chinensis, its mean PE is reduced by 25.1

Agrophotovoltaic (APV) systems present a synergistic approach to land use, yet their belowground impacts overwintering on crop growth remain poorly understood. We conducted a field experiment to investigate how APV systems promote the growth of overwintering oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) through phased plant-soil-microbe interactions. We demonstrate that APV altered the soil microenvironment by increasing temperature and moisture, thereby inducing a stage-specific shift in root strategies. Specifically, during the seedling stage, elevated soil temperature and moisture drove the oilseed rape to enhance root organic acid secretion and stele diameter, thereby accelerating soil nutrient activation and uptake efficiency. This process ensured the accumulation of sufficient nutrients for post-overwintering aerial reconstruction. Conversely, during the blooming stage, the plants shifted strategy, reducing organic acid secretion while increasing root tissue density to sustain long-term nutrient absorption. Concurrently, APV increased soil microbial extracellular enzyme activity and the abundance of R-strategy microorganisms during the seedling stage, promoting the accumulation of key nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which established a strong soil nutrient base for subsequent growth. Furthermore, APV supported the later growth by promoting K-strategy microorganisms and the nitrifying genus MND1 during the blooming period, which led to a sustained increase in soil nitrate nitrogen content and plant biomass accumulation. Our results suggest that microenvironmental changes under APV promote the growth of overwintering oilseed rape, thereby offering a new approach to optimize APV–crop patterns and increase land use efficiency in cold regions in winter.

Global expansion of coal mining subsidence areas presents severe ecological challenges including widespread soil degradation and heavy metal contamination. Our study proposes a transformative approach that reconsiders repurposing photovoltaic arrays as active ecological engineers rather than mere energy generators. We conducted a field investigation in a semi-arid subsidence area to examine how an agrophotovoltaic (APV) system influenced the adaptive strategies and remediation potential of two contrasting plant species, Medicago sativa and Hemerocallis hybrida. We observed APV-generated environmental heterogeneity characterized by significantly reduced light intensity and increased soil moisture, which together triggered fundamental functional differences between the two species. Medicago sativa exhibited a conservative resource-use strategy, with leaf thickening, increased biomass, and metal stabilization through an increased bioconcentration factor but a decreased translocation factor. In contrast, Hemerocallis hybrida adopted a resource-acquisition strategy by optimizing light capture and metal extraction efficiency, which was reflected in an increased translocation factor. Crucially, we identified the underlying mechanisms driving this functional specialization. Medicago sativa promoted metal immobilization through reduced organic acid secretion and increased oxidative enzyme activity, whereas Hemerocallis hybrida facilitated metal mobilization via increased acid secretion and hydrolytic enzyme production. These adaptations were mechanistically supported by differential carbon allocation to non-structural carbohydrates. As a result of these adaptations, APV reduced soil contamination indices by 25-35% and amplified ecosystem services. The integrated APV system also generated substantial economic-ecological co-benefits and synergistic service values. Our results establish APV as a synergistic ecological solution that concurrently addresses clean energy production and targeted ecological restoration, thereby providing a sustainable and mechanistically informed pathway for revitalizing degraded mining landscapes.

Phosphorus (P) availability directly affects grassland soil physicochemical properties and plant growth, which in turn alters microbially mediated nitrous oxide (N2O) emission. Linking plant, soil, and microbial processes is helpful to reveal processes that affect the effects of soil P on N2O emission. Here, we established five P-application treatments (control, with no P addition, and 1-12.5 g P m-2 yr-1 in treatments P1 to P12.5) to vary soil P availability. We investigated how the nutrient-acquisition strategies of Leymus chinensis, soil physicochemical properties, and microbial metabolic activity responded to P availability and assess effects on N2O emission. The N2O flux in the fertilization treatments was significantly lower than in the control but differed among the treatments. Plant biomass and root nonstructural carbohydrates increased significantly in P1 and P2.5, and plants increased root carbon allocation and recruited more microbes and greatly increased the nitrogen mineralization rate. This symbiotic plant-microbe association promoted plant water uptake, and soil drying increases the abundance of amoA functional gene, thereby promoting nitrification and reducing N2O emission. Plants obtained more nutrients associated with an increase in the number of root tips and carboxylate exudation in P5 and P12.5. This self-reliance strategy increased nutrient competition, and the resulting substantial reduction of microbial biomass decreased the N2O flux. However, the abundance of the narG gene and N2O emission increased slightly in P12.5, whereas the microbial biomass was low but maintained a high carbon-use efficiency, reflecting a self-reliant microbial strategy to acclimate to their environment. Overall, P availability in grassland soils was inversely proportional to N2O emission, and strongly determined plant-microbe interactions. Our results provide support for managing grass growth and N2O emission in P-deficient grassland.

Photovoltaic systems greatly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, the microenvironmental changes of photovoltaic modules affect soil organic carbon (SOC) and improve carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems to mitigate global climate change is unclear. We analyzed the effects of different photovoltaic systems on SOC and its fractions in semi-arid grassland, and revealed the SOC formation and stability mechanisms. Tracking photovoltaic systems increased carbon stock, especially proportion of mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC) in SOC by more than 10 %, and depended on the responses of plant inputs and microbial necromass to microenvironmental changes. Suitable amounts of light and water in the systems improved litter biomass and quality, and promoted MAOC accumulation by increasing the exogenous carbon supply and microbial activity. Such systems also reduced soil carbon loss by reducing heterotrophic respiration caused by low levels of organic acids and recruiting effective microorganisms such as Schizothecium and Lactobacillus. Moreover, changes in litter and root exudates promoted microbial biomass and enzyme activity, mediating the retention of microbial necromass and SOC. The contribution of bacterial necromass carbon to SOC increased by more than 8.5 %. However, fixed photovoltaic systems reduced soil carbon stock by 0.46 kg m-2 due to water limitations that decreased both plant carbon inputs and microbial necromass. Our results revealed the importance of plant inputs and microbial necromass in regulating SOC in photovoltaic systems, and demonstrated that photovoltaic systems can achieve synergies between CO2 emission reduction and soil carbon sequestration. This provides new insights for formulating carbon management policy and promoting sustainable eco-economic development.

Human activities have resulted in increased phosphorus (P) deposition, potentially impacting the carbon (C) cycles of many ecosystems. However, the fate of the net ecosystem CO2 exchange following phosphorus addition, which signifies the equilibrium between ecosystem C uptake and release, remains uncertain, and the underlying mechanisms involved are poorly understood. Here, an in-situ fertilization experiment (0-12.5 g P m-2 yr-1) was performed to assess ecosystem C-P interactions in a temperate grassland. The addition of P alleviated P limitation, thereby stimulating plant nutrient uptake, the leaf area index, and plant diversity, and resulting in an increase of 18.92-53.64 % in gross primary productivity via enhanced photosynthetic capacity. Phosphorus addition stimulated the allocation of photosynthate to belowground tissues, and enhanced the litter quantity and quality, with a decreased litter C: nitrogen (N) and C:P ratios. This would have a positive impact on the ecosystem C release. Because gross primary productivity was higher than ecosystem C release, the net ecosystem CO2 exchange in the grassland was stimulated which led to the production of a net C sink over the growing season. These results highlight that soil P availability plays a critical role in regulating the trajectory of the ecosystem C cycle in temperate grassland.

Agrophotovoltaic systems (APV) combine solar power generation with agricultural production, thereby alleviating increasingly fierce competition for land between food and energy production. How changes in the microenvironment by APV in different seasons affect plant adaptations at different growth stages is unclear. In this study, we used plant metabolomics to analyze the specific adaptation strategies and yield formation mechanisms of oilseed rape under the APV during the seedling and blooming stages. Under the APV, soil temperature increased. During seedling, oilseed rape adopted a resource-acquisition strategy to improve its growth and photosynthetic rates by reducing specific root length (SRL) and root tissue density (RTD), and increasing leaf chlorophyll content. The APV also promoted nutrient accumulation by increasing root soluble sugars and upregulating organic acid metabolites, while downregulating defense-related metabolites such as phenylpropanoids, thereby promoting growth during the blooming stage. During blooming, shading by the APV caused plants to switch to a resource-conservation strategy by increasing LMA, RTD, and chlorophyll content, reducing SRL, and improving resource-utilization efficiency. Plants shifted resources from growth inputs to starch storage in leaves and upregulated leaf lipid metabolism to increase yield. The changes in growth and defense strategies were regulated by hormones such as abscisic and indoleacetic acids. Our results show that it is necessary to explore the synergy between crops and photovoltaic modules by accounting for the microclimatic characteristics and crop growth cycles in a region to provide new ideas for improving land-use efficiency and optimizing the APV.

Agrophotovoltaic systems (APV) co-locate photovoltaic power generation and crop production within the same land unit, providing a solution to mitigate climate change and land conflicts. However, it is unclear how plants with different characteristics adapt to the APV conditions and whether they improve their biomass and quality (medicinally active components). We examined the feasibility and response mechanisms of cultivating Astragalus membranaceus, Saposhnikovia divaricata, and Scutellaria baicalensis in APV based on their resource-utilization strategies, and interactions between secondary metabolites and soil microorganisms. Astragalus membranaceus adapted best, with high biomass and quality (astragaloside IV) under APV. It allocated more carbon to growth and improved resource acquisition by improving fine root architecture and increasing photosynthetic capacity. The surplus carbon was synthesized into astragaloside, which recruited microbes such as Peziza to further promote plant growth. The lower adaptability of Saposhnikovia divaricata caused the plants to allocate more rhizosphere carbon to obtain nutrients by secreting low-molecular-weight organic acids and extracellular enzymes, but the enrichment of pathogenic microorganisms such as Paraphoma reduced its biomass and quality (5-O-methylvisamminol, prim-O-glucosylcimifugin, and cimifugin). Scutellaria baicalensis invested more carbon in aboveground biomass and defense, thereby reduced belowground biomass. However, it responds to APV by increasing its chlorophyll content and root non-structural carbohydrates and by recruiting beneficial microbes such as Mortierella, thereby improving quality (baicalin and wogonoside). Our results demonstrate the suitability of APV for cultivating plants, particularly A. membranaceus, and provide new insights for photovoltaic industry planning, sustainable agricultural management and APV benefit enhancement.

Protected areas are crucial for sustaining species populations and minimizing habitat loss. However, climate change poses a global threat that introduces uncertainties to the effectiveness of existing protected areas and future conservation planning. Here, we analyzed the impact of climate change on protected area effectiveness in China by assessing species richness (mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and plants) and carbon storage under current and future (2050s) climate scenarios. By integrating both current and future potential key areas, forward-looking priority conservation areas were identified to address the gaps in existing protected areas and to enhance climate change adaptation. The results showed spatial heterogeneity in the climate-change velocity, with higher rates in protected areas in eastern, northern, and northeastern China. Under climate change, changes in species richness in existing protected areas differ among taxonomic groups; the largest number of protected areas showed decreasing bird and mammal species richness. However, the number of protected areas with increased species richness exceeded that with declined, and the number of effectively protected species increased by 1 % to 4 %. In addition, 52 % of protected areas showed an increase in carbon storage capacity; thus, protected areas can remain effective under future climate change. Despite these positive trends, 62 % to 92 % of species and 88 % of carbon storage were not effectively protected. Expanding priority areas could conserve >80 % of species and 30 % of carbon storage, both currently and in 2050. Our framework will help to assess the effectiveness of protected areas and to identify nearly optimal areas for future expansion.

Climate change is exerting severe pressure on terrestrial biodiversity. It is essential to clarify how vulnerabilities to climate change differ among taxonomic groups to mitigate biodiversity loss. Conservation planning should aim to minimize additional threats while maximizing the opportunities that climate change offers. In this study, we used species distribution models to simulate the current and future (2050s) suitable distributions of Chinese mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and plants. We analyzed the climate change vulnerability across these taxonomic groups and identified conservation priorities based on the vulnerable and opportunity areas that will result from climate change. By the 2050s, the losses of current habitat suitable for amphibians, mammals, reptiles, birds, and plants will reach 26.8 %, 16.8 %, 13.8 %, 11.9 %, and 10.0 %, respectively, indicating high vulnerability to climate change. The relative loss of suitable habitat is influenced by the threat status of species. Spatially, the areas of China with the highest vulnerability to climate change are mainly distributed in the north, northwest, and Qinghai-Tibet regions, whereas high-opportunity areas are mainly in the south. Areas with high opportunity and vulnerability will together account for 11.8 % of land area in China and represent conservation priorities for reducing species extinction. However, provinces with large priority areas will have lower human development and human footprint indexes, which will challenge the successful implementation of conservation efforts. Our results highlight the different responses of different Chinese taxonomic groups to climate change and will guide the selection of crucial areas for reducing species extinction risk.

Accurate estimation of ecosystem carbon stocks and their dynamics and exploration of their drivers will contribute to the sustainable management of carbon neutrality. We combined field measurements in China's West Liao River Basin with the improved Terrestrial Ecosystem Regional (TECO-R) model to quantify the carbon pools and carbon turnover time from 2000 to 2021. Ecosystem carbon density averaged 3.65 kg C m-2; soil carbon pools accounted for about 80 %. Forests are major contributors to carbon sinks. The turnover times in the leaf, root, and soil carbon pools and the whole ecosystem were 0.54, 5.26, 42.76, and 23.31 years, respectively, depended on elevation and vegetation type. Although warming and increased precipitation promoted vegetation carbon accumulation, this increase was offset by a more substantial loss of soil organic carbon, the entire ecosystem (ec) decreased at an average rate of 84.21 g C m-2 yr-1, mainly due to enhanced soil carbon loss. Precipitation significantly affects the ecin arid and semi-arid river basin; human activities and the natural environment also directly or indirectly influenced the evolution of ec. Our hybrid modeling framework enables spatially explicit assessment of carbon dynamics and provides a transferable approach for management, and guide nature-based climate solutions in fragile ecosystems.