The work is based on the idea that the shape and orientation of soil pores are among the direct indicators of the structural state of the soil. The specific features of the quantitative assessment of the shape of pores in two-dimensional sections by the degree of its difference from the circle are considered. To improve the quality of the evaluation of the pore shape, it was proposed to use a generalized index of the pore shape F, which reflects both roundness and pore isometry. Using the form factor F, the structure of thin macropores was studied in vertical sections from the genetic horizons of the zonal loamy soils of the European territory of Russia. With the help of cluster analysis in the studied soils, 8 types of pore space specific for the main aggregative soil structures were identified. The selected types differ in shape, orientation and size of thin macropores in micromorphological sections. By means of discriminant analysis, a system of automated morphometric diagnostics of the aggregate soil structure based on the structure of the pore space of the soil has been developed. The natural genetic divergence of the aggregate structure in virgin soils and the agrogenic convergence of the structure in the arable horizons of agrosoils are shown. Morphometric criteria for diagnosing the four main stages of the degradation of the physical structure of the soil according to the shape and orientation of the soil pores are proposed.

The classification may be created on a basis of the analysis and grouping of the soil data or some typical images (standards) of the soil, which were imagined or selected from the existing data. These will be the representative profiles. The expression "representative profile or soil pit" may serve as a summary (denotation) of concepts different in meaning or content. As reference points may be taken mean, modal, or median profiles of the marked taxons, holotype – profile, which is the most similar to the whole taxon profiles. However, the calculated representatives are not entirely convenient because of the dependence on the volumes of multidimensional samples. Two approaches are combined. However, this also causes the increase of the subjectivity share, which is contained in the procedures of representative processes identification in the groups of initial objects. Nevertheless, we found more objective approach of typical samples detection, which is presented by the idea of classification-specification. The purpose of classification (genetic, factorial, substantive, combined, etc.) is determined through a fixed system of soil indicators (specificities) corresponding to this goal, organized in the form of a classification-specification graph. The number of objects for such a classification is determined by the number of gra-dation combinations for the values of the selected specificities (Кj), where j = 1,2, ... m, and m is the number of specificities taken into account. The edges of the graph reflect descriptions of representative images (types) of classification taxa. The word “type” here is related to the representative profile, and not to a soil.

The short history of the steppe forestry is considered. The priority of Russia in dealing with this issue is marked. In this work, the long process of the development of forms of forest plantations, their structure, width and range of species is presented. The most significant completed projects on their construction are marked. The most attention is paid to the largest project of 1948, which consequently was called as The Plan of Nature Transformation. The purpose and role of different types of forest plantations is shown. Also, there was marked the impact of forest plantations on microclimate, soil water regime and their resistance to the unfavourable climatic conditions. The numerous data obtained stipulate that the yield of crops, protected by the forest plantations, is increased. The areas demanding the creation of new forest plantations for different purposes, calculated by All-Russia Research Institute of Agroforestry are presented. We suggest to increase the total area of additional forest plantations to 4.2. mil. ha.

Among the quantitative indices of the pore space, the morphometric data are characterized by the largest genetic specificity. The values of size, form and pore orientation, which form the morphometric profiles, reflect the vertical variability of the morphological composition of the soil pores. The computer analysis of the pore space in the thin sections of the soil from the main genetic layers showed lateral variability, and also the similarity and difference of morphometric profiles of the pore space in the soddy-podzolic and gray forest soils of European Russia within the range 0.2 mm < d < 2.0 mm. In order to assess the variability of the profiles of the pore space according to different morphometric indices and their comparison to each other we used method of multivariate statistics. The lateral variation of the profile distribution of the cracky roundish and horizontally (subhorizontally) oriented pores in the soddy-podzolic and gray forest soil is quite high (the most of variation coefficients exceed 15-20%). In both soils the diversity of the profile distributions of cracky and roundish pores is higher than that of pores with horizontal (subhorizontal) orientation. Comparing to the gray forest soil, the soddy-podzolic soil is generally characterized by the less expressed variation of profiles of the pore space according to the all investigated indices.

The classifications of soils, which correspond the actual level of informational technologies, are able to provide the necessary clarity and conclusiveness of their conceptions, the implementation of formal methods for qualitative assessements and criteria of quality of estimations. The world soil science is now characterized by the absence of fundamental investigations on theory of classification, which is replaced by methods of data analysis. This paper suggests a new approach to creation of comprehensive classification as an attempt to fill a gap in this area. This approach is based on the idea of allotment classification (by Yu. A. Voronon). The purpose of classification is determined by the fixed system of the selected soil indices (specificities), which are organized as a graph of allotment classification. The number of objects in classification is determined by the number of selected specificities and their value grades. The edges of the graph reflect the descriptions of meaningful modes (types) of classification taxons. The recognition of new soils is made on the basis of similarity to them. It is the first time when the classification obtained analytical expression. Its equation allows us to code the vector of description of soils by a number, and as contrary, to restore the description on the basis of a code. That looks like an original database. Other classification and information materials may be moved into the forming classification space. For the purposes of supporting and realization of discussed approaches we created the special internet page: www.infosoil.ru.

The method of X-ray microtomography was applied to study pore space of a virgin soddy-podzolic soil at the natural soil water content. The morphometric parameters of the pores of more than 100 μm in diameter were determined in the vertically oriented undisturbed soil monoliths (d = 3 cm, h = 3–4 cm) from the genetic horizons of the most differentiated part of the soil profile (the AY, AEL, EL, BEL, BT1, and BТ2 horizons). A tendency for the horizontal orientation of these pores was found in all the horizons, except for the humus (AY) horizon. Isolated vesicular pores of different sizes were abundant in the eluvial part of the profile. Numerous recent and relict phytogenic channels were found in the intraped mass of the BT2 horizon. Differently directed interfaces of structural units in the soil horizons were visualized. Cluster analysis was applied to estimate differences between the genetic horizons with respect to their textures, aggregate sizes, and shapes of pores as seen in vertical two-dimensional X-ray images.

The methods of multidimensional statistics and claster analysis were used to create an automated classification and diagnostics of the pore space in 200 micromorphological vertically oriented thin sections prepared from podzolic soils (the Republic of Komi, Russia), soddy-podzolic soils in the Moscow region, gray forest soils (Tula region) and chernozems (Kursk and Voronezh regions in Russia, Odessa region in Ukraine). The computer imagination analysis permitted to study fine macro-voids ( d = 0.2-2 mm) in the field of vision 2x2 cm. Every void in the field of vision was measured to determine its section area ( S ), perimeter ( P ), diametrical ( D ) and longitudinal ( L ) sections, orientation of the long section axe in the plane thin section and the form factor F = (4 pS / P 2 + D / L )/2. 100-150 voids were taken for measurements in every thin section. To characterize the pore space in thin sections, under use were also the empiric distribution of voids according to the form factor and orientation as well as the average length of voids in the field of vision. The discrimination analysis made it possible to elaborate an automated system and to give the morphometric characteristics of the pore space in the studied soils with varying structures so specific for loamy soils at the territory of European Russia including crumbly, granular, nutty, platy, massive-platy, fissure-like and massive structures. The results of the automated diagnostics have a rather high similarity with the expert visual assessment of the pore space in thin sections (75-90%).

The idea of G.V. Dobrovol’skii about the spatial variability of microscopic soil features was tested by the example of the micromorphological indices of soil pores (d = 0.2–2.0 mm) visible in thin sections in separate soil horizons and in the vertical soil profiles. For this purpose, 4-m-long soil trenches with a depth of 1.5–1.8 m were examined in the virgin soddy-podzolic and gray forest soils of Moscow and Tula oblasts of Russia. It was shown that most of the micromorphometric indices of soil pores are characterized by the medium and high intrahorizon variability (the coefficient of variation V = 11–33%). The minimum variability (V = 5–14%) was found for the average values of the form factor of soil pores in thin sections, which attests to a relative stability of the shape of soil pores within the given horizons. The variability of the geometric parameters of soil pores in the studied soil profiles was also examined. Variation in the parameters of soil pores within separate thin sections was used as an additional characteristic of the studied soil objects.

The achievements, problems, and challenges of the modern stage of the development of the Soil-Geographic Database of Russia (SGDBR) and the history of this project are outlined. The structure of the information system of the SGDBR as an internet-based resource to collect data on soil profiles and to integrate the geographic and attribute databases on the same platform is described. The pilot project in Rostov oblast illustrates the inclusion of regional information in the SGDBR and its application for solving practical problems. For the first time in Russia, the GeoRSS standard based on the structured hypertext representation of the geographic and attribute information has been applied in the state system for the agromonitoring of agricultural lands in Rostov oblast and information exchange through the internet.

Under consideration is a regionalization version corrected with the aim to renew taxons, to give a new interpretation of farming systems and to specify the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the soil cover in agricultural areas. It is of great interest from the historical viewpoint, permitting to study the stages in the development of the purposeful regionalization. The present data may be useful for elaborating new specialized regionalization using the modern GIS-technologies for forecasting the development of agriculture in the nearest future.

The dualism of notions is a common form of our perception of the world. Thus, the notion of a classification system actually includes two complementary parts: taxonomy and meronymy. Taxonomy describes the structure of taxonomic units (taxa) and their relationships, whereas meronymy deals with the structure of the archetypes and meronyms (parts of the whole) composing them and linked by associative relations. An archetype can be defined as a generalized image consisting of meronyms that can be definitely described by a set of characteristics. Each archetype in meronymy has a corresponding taxon in taxonomy. The notions of the object of classification and the particular objects (things) representing it are explained. The notions of soil objects are somewhat different and depend on the goals and kinds of classification (conceptual, physical, or imaginable). Substantive (natural) classifications that encompass the entire set of conceivable objects (entirety) can be referred to as intensional classifications. They should be distinguished from extensional classifications dealing with a particular group of objects (data) and aimed at their arrangement in a convenient way. Extensional soil classification systems are those systems that actually arrange the lists of known soils into some order according to the rules formulated by their authors.

As the theory and mathematical methods have been so far introduced insufficiently into elaborating the soil classification nowadays, an attempt is made to demonstrate some available approaches. An aphoristic title of this paper is used not to dethrone an “aristocratic” pattern of this significant problem that has being constantly discussed in soil science but to show how the up-to-date means of informatics allow solving numerous tasks related to the elaboration, investigation and utilization of classification structures based upon a description of soil objects. The research in preparing any classification should be carried out in the way described in this paper in order to consider it as complicated and open for discussion, investigation and further development.

Under discussion are basic concepts, methods and prerequisites for applying in pedology such a general science as tectology founded by A.A. Bogdanov, an eminent Russian scientist, in the early 20th century. Tectological, i.e.organizational approach proved to be efficient in formalization, in cartographic and attributive description of soil objects and in elaboration of the classification structure. A new conception is universal in its application and many aspects of soil science may be considered in tectological context (systems, structures). However, there is a weak spot in formalization of concepts, what has been implemented by theoretic-plural means, multidimensional statistics and claster analysis.

Classiology can be defined as a science studying the principles and rules of classification of objects of any nature. The development of the theory of classification and the particular methods for classifying objects are the main challenges of classiology; to a certain extent, they are close to the challenges of pattern recognition. The methodology of classiology integrates a wide range of methods and approaches: from expert judgment to formal logic, multivariate statistics, and informatics. Soil classification assumes generalization of available data and practical experience, formalization of our notions about soils, and their representation in the form of an information system. As an information system, soil classification is designed to predict the maximum number of a soil’s properties from the position of this soil in the classification space. The existing soil classification systems do not completely satisfy the principles of classiology. The violation of logical basis, poor structuring, low integrity, and inadequate level of formalization make these systems verbal schemes rather than classification systems sensu stricto . The concept of classification as listing (enumeration) of objects makes it possible to introduce the notion of the information base of classification. For soil objects, this is the database of soil indices (properties) that might be applied for generating target-oriented soil classification system. Mathematical methods enlarge the prognostic capacity of classification systems; they can be applied to assess the quality of these systems and to recognize new soil objects to be included in the existing systems. The application of particular principles and rules of classiology for soil classification purposes is discussed in this paper.

Mathematical tools that may be applied for soil classification purposes are discussed. They include the evaluation of information contained in particular soil attributes, the grouping of soil objects into a given (automatically determined) number of classes, the optimization of the classification decisions, and the development of the models and rules (algorithms) used to classify soil objects. The algorithms of multivariate statistical methods and cluster analysis used for solving these problems are described. The major attention is paid to the development of the systems of informative attributes of soil objects and their classes and to the assessment of the quality of the classification decisions. Particular examples of the solution of the problems of soil classification with the use of formal mathematical methods are given. It is argued that the theoretical and practical problems of classification in science cannot find objective solutions without the application of the modern methods of information analysis. The major problems of the numerical taxonomy of the soil objects described in this paper and the appropriate software tools for their solution should serve as the basis for the creation of not only formal soil classification systems but also the theory of soil classification.

A computer-based image analysis of vertically oriented thin sections was applied to study changes in the shape and orientation of fine soil macropores ( d = 0.2−2.0 mm) in the profiles of soddy-podzolic soils and typical (migrational-mycelial) chernozems. Generalization of the obtained morphometric data was based on the theory of mereology, a scientific discipline studying the structure (part-whole relationships) of classified objects. As a first approximation, generalized data characterized archetypes of morphometric porespace profiles of the studied soils. The archetype of the pore-space profile of the soddy-podzolic soil consists of four components (meronyms) corresponding to the humus-accumulative, eluvial, textural (clay-illuvial), and transitional to the parent material (BC) horizons. Sharp boundaries between the upper horizons specify sharp changes in the studied meronomic indices of the shape and orientation of soil pores. The pore-space profile of the migrational-mycelial chernozem consists of two major components: specific pores in the granular dark-humus (AU) horizon and complex pore space of the BCA and BCca horizons that are poorly differentiated with respect to the shape and orientation of their fine macropores despite clear genetic differences between these horizons. Pore-space patterns in the lower (transitional to the parent material) horizons of the studied soils are characterized by the high degree of similarity (>75%). Pore-space patterns in the upper horizons of the studied soils are different; the level of their similarity does not exceed 24–41.5%. The results obtained in this study hold promise in the use of morphometric characteristics of the pore space in separate genetic soil horizons as meronyms composing archetypes of the pore-space profiles of different soils. Such archetypes may be used for diagnostic purposes as reference pore-space profiles of the particular types of soils.