This study evaluated how embryonic choline supplementation (ECS) via in ovo injection and gosling choline supplementation (GCS) via diet jointly influence embryonic development, endocrine status, growth performance, and muscle development. A total of 1,250 hatching eggs were allocated to five ECS treatments: non-injected control (ENC), sham-injected control (EPC), and 0.5 mL of choline chloride at 0.5 (E0.5), 1.0 (E1), and 1.5 (E1.5) mg/mL. Following hatch, 720 female goslings (144 per ECS group) were randomly assigned to three GCS levels: 0 (G0), 200 (G200), and 400 (G400) mg/kg.ECS significantly increased embryo weight and relative embryo weight (embryo weight as a percentage of initial egg weight) at embryonic day 18 (DE18; P < 0.001) and DE27 (P = 0.005), while no significant effects were observed at DE20 (P > 0.05). Circulating growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACT), and corticosterone (CORT) responded to choline in dose-dependent patterns (P < 0.001). Post-hatch body weight was significantly affected by the ECS × GCS interaction throughout the post-hatch period (P ≤ 0.016 at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days of age). GCS at 400 mg/kg significantly improved 28-day body weight (P < 0.001) and feed conversion ratio (P < 0.001). Pectoralis and leg muscle myofiber diameter and cross-sectional area were enhanced by higher choline supply (ECS: P ≤ 0.041; GCS: P < 0.001), accompanied by reduced pectoral fiber density (P < 0.001). Notably, myofiber hypertrophy occurred without changes in myogenin (MyoG), myogenic regulatory factor 4 (MRF4), or myogenic factor 5 (Myf5) expression (P > 0.05). Instead, choline exerted treatment-dependent modulation of IGF-1 and MSTN primarily in the pectoralis (P < 0.001), indicating that choline promotes muscle growth via the IGF-1/MSTN axis. For growth rate and feed efficiency, E1G400 is preferable; for muscle yield, E1.5G400 offers additional fiber gains; for immune organ development, E0G0 is preferable given the increased bursa weights at lower supplementation. These findings provide a scientific basis for targeted choline nutritional strategies in goose production systems.

A total of 240 healthy 35-day-old male Jiangnan White geese were used in a 2 × 2 factorial experiment to evaluate the effects of dietary crude protein (CP) level and starch structure on growth performance, intestinal digestive function and amino acid metabolism. Two CP levels (16% and 14%) and two amylose/amylopectin ratios (AM/AP ratio, 0.34 and 0.44) were tested from 35 to 63 days of age. Lowering dietary CP improved body weight, average daily gain, and feed efficiency, but increased abdominal fat and mesenteric fat deposition and impaired protein nutritional status, as indicated by reduced serum total protein and globulin and increased glucose and creatinine levels. Low-protein diets also increased jejunal α-amylase and trypsin activities and ileal trypsin activity, while reducing serine digestibility. Increasing the dietary AM/AP ratio improved body weight at 63 d, average daily gain, feed efficiency, breast muscle yield, and reduced abdominal fat deposition. It also increased jejunal villus height, decreased jejunal α-amylase and maltase activities, and increased ileal chymotrypsin activity. Most apparent amino acid digestibility values were numerically improved by the higher ratio. Overall, moderate CP reduction improved growth but promoted fat deposition, whereas a higher AM/AP ratio enhanced growth, carcass traits, and intestinal function, partly offsetting the negative effects of low-protein diets.

This study systematically investigated age-related variations in meat quality traits, lipidomic profiles, and metabolomic profiles of breast muscle from White King pigeons, comparing 28-day-old squabs (D28) and 12-month-old adult pigeons (M12). Six biological replicates were used per group (n = 6). Physicochemical analyses and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry were employed to characterize these differences. Results showed significant disparities in meat quality between the two age groups: D28 pigeons exhibited significantly higher lightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*) values at 24-h postslaughter, along with higher water-loss rate alongside lower shear force (p < 0.05), reflecting more tender muscle texture despite weaker water retention capacity. In contrast, M12 pigeons had higher springiness but lower cohesiveness and gumminess (p < 0.05). Lipidomic analysis identified 553 lipid molecules, with 174 differential lipids categorized into six classes. D28 pigeons had significantly higher levels of glycerolipids (GLs) and fatty acyls (FAs), while M12 pigeons showed elevated saccharolipids (SLs) and prenol lipids (PRs). Metabolomic profiling detected 19,019 metabolites, among which 984 were differentially abundant (screening criteria: variable importance in projection (VIP) ≥ 1, fold change (FC) > 1.2 or FC < 0.83, FDR-adjusted p < 0.05), predominantly enriched in amino acid metabolism. Correlation analysis revealed that acylcarnitines (AcCa) and phosphatidylinositol (PI) were positively correlated with water-loss rate and L24 values (r > 0.8, p < 0.05), whereas lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPEs), L-threonic acid, and β-glycerophosphoric acid showed positive associations with shear force and cooking loss (r > 0.8, p < 0.05). These findings reveal statistical associations between lipid/metabolite profiles and age-driven differences in pigeon breast meat quality, and identify potential candidate lipid and metabolite biomarkers correlated with pigeon meat quality phenotypes. These results identify candidate biomarkers associated with breast meat quality in male White King pigeons at two ages and offer preliminary exploratory omics data for subsequent pigeon meat research, rather than universal guidance for breeding and production.

This study examined the effects of dietary crude protein (CP) level and starch: fat ratio (SFR) on glucose and lipid metabolism in geese. A total of 360 male Jiangnan White geese were allocated to a 3 × 2 factorial arrangement with two CP levels (14.5% and 16.5%) and three SFRs (SFR20:1, SFR11:1, and SFR5:1) from 28 to 63 days of age. Under the low-protein condition, Both the SFR11:1 and SFR5:1 group enhanced body weight of geese at 63 d, but SFR 5:1 increased subcutaneous and abdominal fat deposition. Dietary SFR changed liver cholesterol metabolism and glycogen content, while CP levels mainly affected the activity of enzymes related to liver glucose and lipid metabolism: 14.5% CP increased AMPK and ACC activity, but decreased FAS, CS and G6PC activity. Both CP level and SFR altered muscle fatty acid composition, but the effect of SFR was usually more significant. An SFR of 11:1 was beneficial for improving the muscle fatty acid profile. Gene expression analysis further revealed that low protein compensatorily regulated liver energy metabolism, while excessive fat in low SFR diets led to lipid metabolism disorders. In conclusion, optimizing the energy structure of low-protein diets, especially by maintaining a medium SFR (11:1), could improve glucose and lipid metabolism in geese while increasing body weight.

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of different dietary protein levels and amylose to amylopectin (AM/AP) ratios on the growth performance and muscle development of geese. A total of 240 healthy male Jiangnan White geese (body weight [BW] 2124.8 ± 91.4 g, 35-d-old) were randomly assigned to 4 groups, with 6 replicates per group and 10 birds per replicate. The experimental period was 21 d. The 2 × 2 factorial design included two protein levels (16% and 14%) and two AM/AP ratios (0.34 and 0.44). The 4 groups were: control group, normal protein (16%) with normal AM/AP ratio (0.34) (NPNR); normal protein (16%) with high AM/AP ratio (0.44) (NPHR); low protein (14%) with normal AM/AP ratio (0.34) (LPNR); and low protein (14%) with high AM/AP ratio (0.44) (LPHR). The results showed that compared with normal protein diet, low protein diet increased average daily feed intake (ADFI; P = 0.008). Increasing the AM/AP ratio increased BW of geese at 56 d (P = 0.003), improved average daily weight gain (ADG; P = 0.003) and decreased feed-to-gain ratio (F/G; P = 0.009). Increasing the AM/AP ratio led to an increase in crude protein content in the breast muscle (P = 0.015), also enriched the amino acids composition in the liver and muscles, specifically elevated the Lys content in the liver (P = 0.004) and leg muscle (P = 0.031), and Glu, Leu, Lys, and Pro contents in breast muscles (P < 0.05). Both a low protein diet and a high AM/AP ratio increased short-term breast muscle protein deposition. High AM/AP ratio diets accelerated the protein fractional synthesis rate (P = 0.036) and fractional growth rate (P = 0.002) in breast muscles. Antagonistic interactions between AMPK and mTOR pathways were observed. Compared with the control group, the LPHR group showed down-regulation of AMPKα1 mRNA (P = 0.020) and up-regulation of mTOR mRNA in the breast muscle (P = 0.047). High AM/AP ratio in the diets induced hypertrophy and thickening of leg muscle fibers. In conclusion, increasing the AM/AP ratio in a low-protein diet promoted protein deposition in breast muscles and benefited geese growth.

This experiment was conducted to explore the effects of betaine on the DNA methylation level, expression level, and fat synthesis of VNN1 in goose hepatocytes by isolating the primary hepatocytes of goose at the cellular level and constructing a fatty degeneration model of goose hepatocytes. In the study, 23-day-old Taizhou goose embryos were used as the research object, and free fatty acid (PA:OA = 2:1) was used to induce steatosis of goose primary hepatocytes. The experiment was randomly divided into seven groups: control group, steatosis model group, and betaine (2, 10, 25, 50, 100mM) group. After 24 h of cell culture, cell viability, oil red O staining, and lipid metabolism-related indicators in cell supernatant were measured, and cells were collected to determine VNN1, FAS, ACC, SCD, SREBPQ gene expression and VNN1 promoter region DNA methylation level. (1) The addition of 0.5 mM fatty acids successfully determined the degeneration of goose hepatocytes. The levels of TG and LDL were significantly increased (p < 0.05), and the level of HDL was significantly decreased. (2) The addition of 100 mM betaine significantly reduced TG levels, and 10, 25, 50, and 100 mM betaine significantly reduced LDL levels. The addition of betaine had no significant effect on HDL level compared to the FFA group (p > 0.05), although a significant overall model effect was observed. Oil red O staining showed that the area of lipid droplets in cells with 50 mM betaine decreased most significantly. (3) The expression levels of VNN1, FAS, ACC, SCD, and SREBPQ genes in the fat model group were significantly higher compared to the control group (p < 0.05), and the DNA methylation level in the promoter region of the VNN1 gene decreased. (4) The addition of 2, 10, 25, 50, and 100 mM betaine significantly reduced the expression of VNN1. The expression of FAS in 2, 10, and 25 mM betaine groups significantly decreased. Betaine at 10 and 100 mM significantly reduced the expression of SREBPQ, but it showed no significant effect on ACC expression. Addition of 2, 50, and 100 mM betaine led to an increased DNA methylation status at the VNN1 gene promoter region. In summary, the addition of betaine can reduce the expression of fatty acid synthesizing genes such as FAS, SCD, and SREBPQ, down-regulate the expression level of the VNN1 gene, increase the DNA methylation level of the VNN1 promoter region, and reduce lipid deposition in goose liver steatosis cells.

In poultry, ovulation is governed by steroid hormones: follicular granulosa cells (GCs) secrete progesterone (P4), while theca cells (TCs) produce oestradiol (E2) and testosterone (T), which interact and transform, with characteristic surges pre-ovulation. Pigeon follicles are categorised as F1, F2 and small follicles (SF1), yet most research on their pre-ovulatory steroid hormones has focused on serum, with limited data on follicular endocrine regulation at the critical pre-ovulatory stage. Here, we measured steroid hormone concentrations and related gene expression in pigeon follicles 6 h pre-ovulation. Morphologically, F2 follicles had significantly thicker GC and TC layers than F1 and SF1 (p < 0.05). Hormonal assays revealed SF1 had higher E2 and T levels than F1 (p < 0.05), and its P4 concentration exceeded both F1 and F2 (p < 0.05). Gene expression analysis showed that in SF1 TCs, CYP17A1 and HSD3B1 were highly expressed (p < 0.05); in F1 GCs, StAR and CYP11A1 were upregulated (p < 0.05). Moreover, CYP19A1 expression in outer SF1 TCs was markedly higher than in F1 (p < 0.01). These results clarify the molecular mechanism of steroid hormone synthesis in pigeon follicles during the 6 h pre-ovulatory window, fill the knowledge gap in local follicular endocrine regulation, and provide a theoretical basis for optimising pigeon follicle development, ovulation efficiency and egg production, with practical implications for the pigeon breeding industry.

Melatonin (MT) has been shown to extend laying period in aged hens, but its effects on aging pigeons remain unclear. 36 pairs of 5-year-old White King pigeons were assigned to either a treatment group receiving 1 mg of MT for five days or a control group given saline. The effect of MT injection on egg production in pigeon, assess histological characteristics of follicles, antioxidant parameters level and the related gene mRNA levels, steroid hormone levels and the expressions of synthesis genes on the fifth day of the laying interval. MT treatment significantly improved various aspects of egg quality. Moreover, MT increased follicle diameter and granulosa cell layer (GCL) thickness (P < 0.05). MT levels were elevated in plasma and hierarchy follicles yolks (P < 0.05). Progesterone concentrations rose in plasma (P < 0.05), however, estradiol levels decreased in plasma, F1 and F2 yolks (P < 0.05). MT also reduced ROS and MDA levels in plasma and F1 yolk (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, activities of SOD, TAC, and GSH-PX were significantly increased (P < 0.05). MT upregulated SOD1, CAT, and BCL2 mRNA levels in ovary and F1 GCL (P < 0.05). MT significantly increased ovarian expressions of HSD3B1 and CYP11A1, reducing HSD17B1 mRNA levels (P < 0.05); In F1 and F2 GCL, CYP11A1, CYP17A1, and CYP19A1 expressions were all elevated (P < 0.05). These findings suggest that MT promotes hierarchy follicle maturation, reduces apoptosis, thus extending egg-laying period in aging pigeons.

This study conducted a comprehensive comparison of the metabolomic and proteomic profiles of pigeon breast muscles from 12-month-old (M12) and 28-day-old (D28) birds to investigate the influence of age on meat quality. The M12 samples showed lower L*, a*, and b* values but higher ΔpH, shear force, cooking loss, hardness, cohesiveness, and gumminess compared to the D28 samples. Metabolomic analysis identified five down-regulated metabolites, L-histidine (fold change, FC = 0.216), L-arginine (FC = 0.560), 4-hydroxyproline (FC = 0.149), D-sedoheptulose 7-phosphate (FC = 0.465), and L-glutamic acid 5-phosphate (FC = 0.120), that were primarily involved in amino acid and related metabolic pathways, differentiating the two groups. Proteomic profiling revealed a reduced abundance of several proteins, importantly A306_00011918, A306_00011919, ENPP1, TKT, and ALDH18A1, which are involved in amino acid biosynthesis in M12. Integrative analysis of metabolomic and proteomic data highlighted amino acid biosynthesis, mediated by specific metabolites and proteins, as the major differentiating pathway between M12 and D28. In conclusion, these findings provide mechanistic insights into the molecular basis underlying age-dependent variations in pigeon meat quality, offering valuable guidance for poultry producers in determining the optimal slaughter age to achieve desirable meat characteristics.

This study evaluated the effects of dietary sulphur-containing amino acid (SAA) levels provided during the early (1-28 d) and late (29-63 d) growth stages on production traits and feather follicle gene expression in 63-day-old Jiangnan white goslings. A total of 288 one-day-old male goslings were assigned to a 2 × 2 factorial design with two early SAA levels (0.64% and 0.87%) and two late SAA levels (0.62% and 0.74%), which created four treatments: Dd (low-low), Dg (low-high), Gd (high-low), and Gg (high-high). All measurements were performed on 63-day-old birds. Final body weight was significantly affected only by early SAA levels (p = 0.03), with the high early groups (Gd and Gg) showing a 3% higher weight (3.99 vs. 3.88 kg) than the low early groups. Late SAA levels had no effect on growth but markedly reduced breast muscle cooking loss (p < 0.01) from 26.64% (low late) to 22.70% (high late), which represents a 15% relative improvement in water-holding capacity. A significant early × late interaction (p = 0.03) indicated that late high SAA levels partially compensated for early deficiency. High late SAA levels also slightly reduced dry matter digestibility (73.45% → 73.16%, p = 0.03), while high early SAA levels increased crude ash digestibility (33.59% → 35.66%, p = 0.04). The Dg treatment (low early + high late) caused significantly elevated serum low-density lipoprotein (2.06 vs. 1.42-1.58 mmol/L) and uric acid (348.15 vs. 243.60-294.97 μmol/L), which indicates metabolic stress (p < 0.01 and p = 0.02 for interaction). Transcriptomic analysis of feather follicles from the Gg and Gd groups (both receiving identical high early SAA supplementation) identified 121 differentially expressed genes, including the downregulation of MAT1 (cysteine/methionine metabolism) and upregulation of GHRHR (neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction) in Gg, providing a molecular basis for improved feather growth. q-PCR validated five selected genes. In conclusion, final body weight is determined by early SAA supply, while late SAA supplementation improves meat juiciness, but abrupt increases from low to high SAA levels cause metabolic disturbances. Under this test conditions, The optimal feeding strategy is 0.87% SAAs (1-28 d) followed by 0.74% SAAs (29-63 d).

Dietary metabolizable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP) are key determinants of production efficiency in geese; however, their combined effects during the rapid growth phase are not well defined. A total of 240 male goslings were assigned to four treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement, with six replicates per treatment and 10 birds per replicate. We used a 2 × 2 factorial design to evaluate two ME levels (11.20 vs. 11.65 MJ/kg) and two CP levels (16% vs. 14%) in goslings from 35 to 63 days of age. Growth performance, carcass traits, meat quality, serum biochemical indices, and instrumental taste attributes were measured. Increasing ME increased body weight at day 63 and average daily gain (p < 0.05), whereas average daily feed intake and feed-to-gain ratio were not affected. Most carcass traits were unchanged; however, leg muscle percentage differed between ME levels (p < 0.01) and was higher in the 11.20 MJ/kg group. Meat color responses were muscle- and time-dependent: breast b* at 45 min postmortem was affected by ME and CP (p < 0.001), and leg color traits at 45 min exhibited significant ME × CP interactions (p < 0.05). Postmortem pH, water-holding capacity, and shear force were largely unaffected by dietary treatments. Serum glucose showed a significant ME × CP interaction (p = 0.001), and triglyceride concentration was influenced by both ME and CP (p < 0.01), with lower values observed at higher ME and lower CP. Instrumental taste attributes did not differ among treatments (p > 0.05). In conclusion, modest changes in dietary ME and CP modulated growth and selected carcass, color, and metabolic traits without compromising key technological meat-quality parameters. These results indicate that, during 35-63 days of age, the higher-ME diet (11.65 MJ/kg) combined with a moderate CP reduction to 14% can be considered a feasible formulation option under the conditions of this study.

This study investigated the effects of amylose/amylopectin (AM/AP) ratios in low-protein (LP) diets on the growth performance, fat deposition, and nutrient utilization in goslings. A total of 288 healthy, 35-day-old male Jiangnan White Geese were randomly divided into four treatment groups: one group fed a normal protein diet (16%) with an AM/AP ratio of 0.34 (NPR0.34), and three groups fed low protein diets (14%) with different AM/AP ratios (LPR0.26, LPR0.34, LPR0.44). Each group consisted of six replicates, with 12 geese per replicate, and they were fed for 28 days. The results showed that the body weight at 63 days and average daily gain (ADG) of the LPR0.44 group geese were significantly higher than those of the other groups (p < 0.01), while the feed-to-gain ratio (F/G) was lower (p < 0.05). The abdominal and mesenteric fat contents were lower in the LPR0.44 group than in the LPR0.26 group (p < 0.05), whereas the breast and leg muscle yields were higher (p < 0.05). The breast muscle redness (a*) of the LPR0.34 and LPR0.44 groups was higher than in the NPR0.34 group at 45 min (p < 0.05). The levels of C6:0, C8:0, C11:0, C12:0, and C13:0 in breast muscle saturated fatty acids (SFAs) of the LPR0.44 group were higher, while that of C18:0 was lower compared with the LPR0.26 group (p < 0.05). The serum total cholesterol (TC) and triglycerides (TGs) in the LPR0.44 group were lower than in the LPR0.26 group (p < 0.05). Hepatic lipase (HL) activity was significantly lower in the LPR0.44 group (p < 0.01). Regarding hepatic fatty acids, the levels of butyric acid (C4:0), lauric acid (C12:0), and nervonic acid (C24:1) were lower in the LPR0.44 group than in the LPR0.26 group (p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in intestinal morphology, digestive enzyme activities, or nutrient utilization among the groups. (p > 0.05). In conclusion, adjusting the AM/AP ratio to 0.44 in a low-protein diet improved growth performance, regulated lipid metabolism, and maintained intestinal function in goslings.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced intestinal inflammation is a major challenge to intensive poultry production, affecting growth and overall health. It necessitates effective dietary strategies to enhance gut resilience and immune functionality. This study evaluated the effect of dietary Bifidobacterium supplementation on growth performance, intestinal health and immune responses in LPS-stressed goslings. A total of 288 one-day-old male Jiangnan white goslings (15–28 days) were allocated to six groups in a 2 × 3 factorial design, with Bifidobacterium doses as (0, 300, 600 mg/kg) with or without LPS challenge (0.5 mg/kg BW via intraperitoneal injection). Key findings revealed that LPS stress significantly reduced the growth performance by reducing average daily feed intake (ADFI) and average daily gain (ADG) (P < 0.01) while enhancing the feed conversion ratio (FCR; P < 0.05). Supplementation with 300 mg/kg Bifidobacterium improved ADG by 16.7%, though 600 mg/kg conferred no incremental benefits. LPS exposure upregulated pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) and suppressed anti-inflammatory IL-10 and antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GSH-Px). Bifidobacterium (300 mg/kg) reduced inflammation and enhanced antioxidant capacity, increasing catalase (CAT) activity by 43.3%. Intestinal morphology was compromised by LPS, reducing the villus-to-crypt ratio (VH:CD), while Bifidobacterium improved villus height (9.8% increase at 21 days) and V/C (4.1 at 28 days). In conclusion, 300 mg/kg Bifidobacterium optimally mitigated LPS-induced stress by improving intestinal integrity, reducing systemic inflammation and oxidative damage, and restoring growth hormone axis function, thereby improving growth efficiency. These findings highlight its potential as a cost-effective intervention for enhancing resilience in intensive goose production systems.

This review article focuses on the role of choline in ovarian follicular development, regulated by nutrient–epigenetic interactions. Choline, a key feed additive, participates in DNA methylation and steroid hormone synthesis via its methyl donor function. However, its role in follicular hierarchy and maturation is unclear. Research lacks an understanding of species-specific choline metabolism, follicular fluid methylation dynamics, and toxicity thresholds. This study combines animal nutrition, epigenetics, and reproductive endocrinology. Using in vitro follicle culture models, metabolomics analysis, and cytochrome P450 family 19 subfamily A member 1 (CYP19a1) methylation site screening, it reveals that choline regulates follicle hierarchy through the betaine-S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) pathway. Proper dietary choline reduces homocysteine (HCY) and boosts CYP19a1 demethylation, enhancing theca cell estradiol (E2) production and accelerating follicle maturation. In contrast, inadequate or excessive choline causes mesoderm-specific transcript (MEST) gene methylation abnormalities or trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO)-mediated β-oxidation inhibition, increasing follicle atresia. A phenomenon of steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1) methylation has been observed in poultry, showing that choline affects offspring egg-laying persistence by altering the adrenal–ovarian axis DNA methylation imprint. Future research should establish a precise choline supply system based on the HCY/TMAO ratio in follicular fluid and the CYP19a1 methylation map to improve animal reproduction.

Cottonseed meal is a promising alternative to soybean meal in poultry feed, but concerns over free gossypol limit its use. Although the general toxicity of free gossypol is well-known, its specific effects on the liver—the primary site where it accumulates—are less thoroughly studied, particularly at the molecular level. This study investigated the hepatotoxic effects of gossypol acetate (GA) on goslings through a comprehensive analysis combining morphology, transcriptomics, and metabolomics. Forty-eight 7-day-old male goslings with similar body weight (BW) were randomly assigned to two groups: a control group, receiving a saline solution (0.9%, 2.5 mL/kg BW), and a GA-treated group, administered GA at 50 mg/kg BW orally for 14 days. Histological analysis revealed signs of liver damage, including granular degeneration, hepatocyte enlargement, necrosis, and mitochondrial injury. Transcriptomic analysis identified 1,137 differentially expressed genes, with 702 upregulated and 435 downregulated. Key affected pathways included carbon metabolism, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, pyruvate metabolism, propanoate metabolism, TCA cycle, fatty acid degradation, primary bile acid biosynthesis, tryptophan metabolism, cysteine and methionine metabolism, focal adhesion, and the PPAR signaling pathway. Metabolomic analysis revealed 109 differential metabolites, 82 upregulated and 27 downregulated, implicating disruptions in linoleic acid metabolism, arachidonic acid metabolism, cAMP signaling, and serotonergic synapse pathways. Overall, GA-induced hepatotoxicity involves impaired energy production, disrupted lipid metabolism, and abnormal liver focal adhesion, leading to liver cell dysfunction. These findings highlight the vulnerability of mitochondria and critical metabolic pathways, providing insights into the molecular mechanisms of GA toxicity and guiding future studies on mitigating GA-induced liver damage in goslings.

The objective of the study was to investigate the effects of low-protein amino acid-balanced (LPAB) diets supplemented with Astragalus polysaccharides (APSs) on the production performance, antioxidants, immunity, and biochemical index of laying hens in an elevated-temperature environment. Fifty-two-week-old Hy-Line Brown chickens (n = 768) were randomly divided into four groups, with eight replicates of 24 hens each. The control group was kept at 24 °C with a basal diet (CON), while the treatment groups were exposed to 32 °C and given the following diets: basal (HB), LPAB (HL), and LPAB with 0.5% APSs (HLA). Under heat stress, APSs increased the egg production rate and number of small white follicles, improved the yolk color, and lowered the feed conversion ratio. LPAB diets increased follicle-stimulating hormone, antioxidant enzyme activities, and anti-inflammatory cytokine activity and up-regulated related genes, whereas they reduced stress-related hormones, malondialdehyde concentrations, and triglyceride concentrations and down-regulated related genes. The addition of APSs enhanced immunoglobulin concentrations and cholesterol recovery and altered the expression of related genes. The study found that the adverse effects of high temperatures are directly related to oxidative stress. LAPB diets and APSs relatively alleviate these adverse effects. Therefore, the importance of feeding strategies such as LPAB diets and APSs for laying hens under heat stress conditions has been identified.

This study aimed to investigate the mediating effect of vanin-1 (VNN1) and its DNA methylation on the reduction in liver fat synthesis due to the role of betaine and 5-Azacytidine (5-AZA) in geese. Twenty-eight 35-day-old male Jiangnan white geese with similar body weight (BW) and good health conditions were randomized into four groups (seven birds per group). All the birds were housed with the same type of basal diet. The control group was treated with normal saline intraperitoneally (I.P.); the AZA group was treated I.P. with AZA (2 mg/kg); the betaine group was fed with betaine through the diet and treated I.P. with normal saline (1.2 g/kg); the AZA+betaine group was fed with betaine through the diet and treated I.P. with AZA. The results showed that the administration of AZA significantly increased serum levels of total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and VNN1 enzyme activity (p < 0.05); additionally, the expression levels of the molecules in various tissues were up-regulated to different extents, such as VNN1, fatty acid synthase (FAS), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), stearoyl-CoA dehydrogenase (SCD), and sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP); in contrast, the treatment of betaine reduced serum TC levels and the S-adenosylmethionine/S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAM/SAH) ratio; furthermore, hepatic DNA methylation in the AZA group was decreased in terms of the VNN1 promoter region. The results demonstrated that the expression of the VNN1 gene was negatively correlated with DNA methylation. This finding verified the key role of VNN1 and its methylation in the inhibition of liver lipid synthesis by betaine and provided a novel molecular mechanism for the regulation of liver lipid metabolism.

Dietary protein plays a crucial role in poultry nutrition, influencing nitrogen metabolism, renal function, and immune responses. This study investigated the effects of dietary protein source (plant-based vs. animal-based) and level (14.5, 18.5, and 22.5%) on serum biochemical parameters, renal metabolic markers, inflammatory cytokines, and gene expression in Jiangnan White goslings from day 1 to day 30 of age. A 2 × 3 factorial design was employed with 504 goslings randomly assigned to six groups, each comprising six replicates with 14 goslings per replicate. The results showed that dietary protein level significantly influenced serum uric acid (UA), creatinine (Cr), urea nitrogen (UN), and xanthine oxidase (XOD) activity, with goslings fed a high-protein diet (22.5%) exhibiting the highest levels (p < 0.05). Increased dietary protein also led to significantly elevated renal UA concentrations and XOD activity, particularly at 22 and 30 days (p < 0.05). In contrast, dietary protein source had limited influence on metabolic parameters, with only a transient difference in serum UA and Cr observed at 10 days of age (p < 0.05), and no significant effects on other serum or renal markers (p > 0.05). Additionally, renal inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-8, TNF-β) were significantly influenced by protein level, whereas XDH, BCL-2, and GLUT-9 mRNA expression remained unchanged (p > 0.05). No significant interactions between protein source and level were observed for most metabolic parameters, except for Cr and TNF-β. These findings suggest that total protein intake, rather than protein source, is the primary regulator of nitrogen metabolism and renal health in goslings. Optimization of protein levels is essential to balance growth performance and metabolic homeostasis.

The study was performed to explore the impacts of varying protein levels and starch-to-fat ratios (SFR) in diets on the growth performance, slaughter performance, and nutrient digestibility of geese. Three hundred sixty healthy 28-day-old geese with similar weight were selected and divided into 6 groups, with 6 replicates of 10 geese in each group. A 2 × 3 two-factor complete randomized design was applied, and the geese were fed diets with the same apparent metabolizable energy, two protein levels, and three starch-to-fat ratios. The protein levels were 16.5% (HP) and 14.5% (LP), and starch-to-fat ratios were 20:1, 11:1, and 5:1 respectively. The findings reveal the following: 1) The body weight (BW) of 63-day-old geese in the SFR5:1 group was significantly higher than in the other two groups (P < 0.05). The average daily gain (ADG) from 28 to 63 days in the SFR5:1 and SFR11:1 groups was significantly higher than that in the SFR20:1 group, and the average daily feed intake (ADFI) was notably lower than that in the SFR20:1 group (P < 0.05). The feed-to-gain ratio (F/G) from 28 to 63 days in the SFR5:1 group was significantly lower than in the other two groups (P < 0.05). 2) The skin and subcutaneous fat thickness (SSFT) was increased significantly in the SFR5:1 group compared to SFR20:1 and SFR11:1 groups (P < 0.05). 3) The digestibility of phosphorus was significantly higher in the 14.5% protein level group than that in the 16.5% protein level group, while crude ash digestibility showed the opposite trend. The digestibility of crude fat was significantly higher in the SFR11:1 and SFR5:1 groups compared to SFR20:1 group (P < 0.05). Moreover, the SFR5:1 group significantly reduced the digestibility of crude ash, calcium, energy, and dry matter (P < 0.05). In conclusion, a diet with a starch-to-fat ratio of 11:1 and a protein level of 14.5% is recommended for formulating feed for geese aged 28-63 days.

Though widely valued, such as commercial poultry, for its meat and egg contributions to the human diet, the White King pigeon demonstrates relatively low egg production performance. Compared to white light (WL), red light (RL) exposure has improved egg-laying performance in pigeons. To uncover the molecular mechanisms behind this effect, RNA sequencing was conducted to investigate the expression profiles of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and mRNAs in granulosa cells (GCs) from F1 and F2 follicles of White King pigeons exposed to RL and WL on the third day of the laying interval (LI3). Compared to the WL group, 91 lncRNAs were differentially expressed in the F1 follicle under RL exposure, with 64 downregulated and 27 upregulated. In the F2 follicle, 187 lncRNAs showed differential expression in the RL group, including 132 downregulated and 55 upregulated transcripts. Integrated network analysis revealed that several differentially expressed (DE) mRNAs are associated with key pathways involved in follicular development, such as steroid biosynthesis, ECM-receptor interaction, Wnt signaling, TGF-beta signaling, and the p53 signaling pathway. The lncRNAs (XR_002424346.1, XR_002410355.1, XR_002410102.1, XR_002421922.1) on both cis and trans target mRNAs (AKR1D1, TPT1, BMP1, HRH2, KPNA7, and WNT6) play important roles in follicular development of pigeon. These findings provide a basis for understanding the molecular mechanisms through which lncRNAs, influenced by RL exposure, regulate follicle development and selection in pigeons, ultimately contributing to enhanced egg production.