This one-year longitudinal study examined how the academic achievement of peer group leaders and nonleader members was associated with individual social, school, and psychological adjustment in Chinese adolescents. Participants included 2450 middle-school students (1233 boys; initial M age = 13.96 years) in China. Data were collected from multiple sources, including self-reports, peer nominations, teacher ratings, and school records. Peer groups and their leaders were identified using the WalkTrap community detection algorithm, resulting in 256 peer group leaders across 238 peer groups. Multilevel modeling revealed that academic achievement of group leaders and nonleader members both positively predicted individual academic achievement and social competence. Whereas group leaders' academic achievement negatively predicted adolescents' aggression and externalizing problems, nonleader members' academic achievement negatively predicted adolescents' peer victimization and internalizing symptoms. The results indicate similar as well as distinct patterns of longitudinal associations of leaders' and nonleader members' academic achievement with individual adjustment in adolescent peer groups. The results suggest that it may be an effective strategy to use peer group-based education and intervention programs involving group leaders and group members to help adolescents develop social and academic competence and reduce externalizing and internalizing problems.

Previous studies have shown that the expression of childhood shyness varies across Western and Eastern cultures. This study examined whether two East Asian subtypes of shyness (anxious and regulated) existed in both a Western and East Asian context; and if so, whether there were differences in the relation between these two subtypes and children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors across country. Participants were children aged 8-10 years from Canada (n = 149, 46.3% male) and China (n = 145; 53.8% male). We found that, although there was no moderation effect of country on anxious shyness (ps > 0.05), country did moderate the relation between regulated shyness and (a) depression and (b) physical aggression (ps < 0.05). Among Canadian children, regulated shyness was negatively associated with both depression and physical aggression, while no significant associations were observed among Chinese children. We speculate that these findings may reflect the dual contributions of dispositional and cultural influences on children's shyness-related adjustment problems.

This study investigated how children aged 7 to 11 years process and comprehend written irony with different emotional valences (ironic praise vs. ironic criticism) using eye-tracking technology. Participants read short stories containing literal praise, literal criticism, ironic praise, or ironic criticism while their eye movements were recorded. Results indicated that children showed significantly lower comprehension accuracy for ironic praise compared to ironic criticism, supporting the affective asymmetry hypothesis in irony processing. Eye-tracking data provided partial support for this asymmetry: regression-path durations—but not first-pass or total reading times—were longer for ironic utterances, particularly ironic praise, indicating greater effort during integrative rereading and reanalysis. Age-related differences were limited to regression-path duration rather than comprehension accuracy, suggesting selective developmental differences in online integration. These findings provide process-level evidence for children’s written irony comprehension and highlight the role of online integrative processes in figurative language processing.

Bystanders can use various strategies to combat bullying and help their victimized peers. This three-wave longitudinal study used latent transition analysis to examine the stability and change in youth's engagement in multiple defending strategies (i.e., defending profiles) and their associations with social-emotional adjustment. Participants were 1259 Chinese youth (Mage = 10.90 years, SD = 0.96, 42.6 % girls) who completed self-reported measures of defending behaviors, peer victimization, and depressive symptoms, and received peer nominations of peer preference. Four defending profiles were identified consistently across time points: aggressive and non-aggressive defenders, average defenders, infrequent defenders, and nonaggressive defenders. Further, results revealed that the nonaggressive defender and average defender profiles were relatively stable, while the aggressive and non-aggressive defender and infrequent defender profiles showed more transitions across time. Importantly, profile membership and change patterns were differentially associated with social-emotional adjustment. The stable membership in or transition to the nonaggressive defender profile was associated with optimal adjustment, whereas membership in or transition to the aggressive and non-aggressive defender profile conferred greater social risk. The findings advance our understanding of the heterogeneity and dynamic in youth's defending strategy and their unique implications for youth's social-emotional development, which may inform interventions tailored to promote safer defending in bullying situations.

INTRODUCTION:Seeking social approval and recognition is a major driving force for adolescents to engage in social interactions. Mianzi ("" in Chinese) is an indigenous concept related to the social perception of one's prestige or admiration. The goal of this 2-year longitudinal study was to examine the moderating role of social preference in the relations between self-reported concern for mianzi and adjustment in Chinese adolescents. METHODS:Participants in this study included junior high school students (N = 938; 461 boys) initially in seventh grade (Mage = 12.41 years) in urban and rural areas of China. Students completed a self-report measure of concern for mianzi, peer assessments of social preference, prosociality, and aggression. Head teachers in each classroom rated each student in the class on their behavioral problems and learning problems. RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS:Adolescents' concern for mianzi was found to negatively predict later aggression, behavioral problems, and learning problems for students who had high initial social preference. Concern for mianzi also positively predicted later aggression for students, particularly boys, who had low initial social preference. The results suggested that concern for mianzi might be a sensitivity factor in adolescents' social-behavioral and school adjustment and highlighted the role of context in shaping the relations.

Objective: Although callous-unemotional (CU) traits and aggression are consistently associated, the bidirectional, function-specific, and gender-difference developmental dynamics remain poorly understood. This study investigated longitudinal associations between CU traits and proactive aggression (PA) versus reactive aggression (RA) using random-intercept cross-lagged panel models. Method: A sample of Chinese adolescents (N = 1,011; 49.0% boys; M-age = 15.40, SD = 0.60) was assessed across four waves at 6-month intervals. Random intercept cross-lagged panel models were employed to disentangle stable between-person differences from within-person fluctuations over time, and multigroup analyses were conducted to examine potential gender differences. Results: At the between-person level, CU traits were positively associated with both PA and RA, with a stronger association observed between CU traits and PA. At the within-person level, significant positive bidirectional cross-lagged effects emerged only between CU traits and PA: higher CU traits predicted higher subsequent PA, and higher PA predicted higher subsequent CU traits; no cross-lagged effects were found between CU traits and RA. Gender differences were observed only in the path from CU traits to PA, with this effect being stronger for boys than for girls. Conclusions: These findings highlight a function-specific, bidirectional reinforcing cycle between CU traits and PA, emphasizing the importance of targeting proactive, instrumental aggression in prevention and intervention efforts for youth exhibiting elevated CU traits.

This 1-year longitudinal study investigated the moderating role of classroom sociable norm on the relations between self- and group-oriented cultural values and adjustment among Chinese adolescents. Participants included 2,671 students (47.8% boys, M age = 12.90 years old) in seventh grade from 58 classrooms in China. Data on self- and group-orientations, sociability, and school and psychosocial adjustment were collected from multiple sources including self-reports, peer nominations, teacher ratings, and school records. Self-orientation was found to negatively predict later prosociality and positively predict later behavioral problems in classrooms with a low classroom sociable norm. In classrooms with a high sociable norm, self-orientation positively predicted later academic performance and social status. The results highlighted the importance of classroom context in shaping adjustment outcomes of adolescents with different cultural orientations.

Over the past two decades, two widely used emotion regulation (ER) strategies, cognitive reappraisal (CR) and expressive suppression (ES), might have changed in their usage tendencies among Chinese adults. However, to date, the extent to which Chinese adults have changed their use of ER strategies is unknown. Therefore, the present study conducted a cross-temporal meta-analysis to investigate whether the application levels of CR and ES among Chinese adults have changed from 2005 to 2023, and to explore the potential influence of macro-social factors, as well as gender differences. Our analysis is based on 201 effect size of CR (n = 150,783 participants) and 172 effect size of ES (n = 131,355 participants) from 209 studies, which completed the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ). Results revealed that both the levels of CR (β = 0.096, SE = 0.012, p < .05) and ES (β = 0.072, SE = 0.011, p < .05) have small but reliable increases, even after controlling for gender composition, age group, region, and publication type. Urbanization level was positively associated with both CR and ES across all time lags. Higher divorce rates predicted increased use of both strategies with a three-year lead effect, whereas smaller family size predicted higher CR but not ES. In addition, we observed no reliable difference for CR, whereas men scored higher than women on ES by a small margin (Hedges' g = 0.270, p < .001). Overall, these findings underscore that Chinese adults increasingly used both CR and ES from 2005 to 2023. Future studies should employ multilevel, time-lagged designs to isolate the pathways through which shifts in social indicators reshape ER use.

Human-AI romantic relationships are increasingly common and have drawn growing scholarly attention. Most existing studies adopt a researcher-centered approach, treating community members as data sources rather than partners with unique needs and contributions. Using a community-based participatory paradigm, we examined the motivations, developmental stages, real-life impacts, and distinctive perspectives of female users in human-AI romance. Twenty-five females (Mage = 22.92, SD = 2.96) participated in semi-structured interviews regarding their human-AI romantic experiences, offered perspectives on dynamics within human-AI romance community, and reviewed and provided feedback on our preliminary analyses. Results revealed that relationship formation arises from the intersection of users’ needs and AI’s affordances, typically progressing through four stages: exploration and curiosity, cultivation and manipulation, significant moments and affirmation, and crisis and potential ending. Each stage involves dynamics distinct from human-human romance, including power asymmetries and deliberate efforts to “train” the AI partner. Overall, participants generally described human-AI romantic relationships as overwhelmingly positive, citing emotional support and personal growth, though some reported reduced interest and engagement in real-world social relationships. Community feedback highlighted two under-recognized themes: the appeal of AI’s non-gendered nature, which offers females alternatives to traditional gender dynamics and low-risk exploration of sexual identity; and the notion of “true AI lovers” who view the spiritual essence of AI as their genuine romantic counterpart rather than a substitute. This study demonstrates the value of participatory approaches for producing nuanced, community-grounded insights into this evolving form of human-AI intimacy.

This three-wave longitudinal study examined the relations between moral judgment of aggression and defending behaviors, with a focus on the moderating effects of self-reported and peer-nominated victimization. Participants included 1183 elementary-school students (Mage = 10.88 years, SD = 0.86; 43% girls, 57% boys). Results from random intercept cross-lagged panel models revealed reciprocal effects between moral judgment of aggression and defending behaviors at the within-person level, moderated by self-reported victimization. Specifically, stronger-than-usual moral judgment of aggression more strongly predicted higher-than-usual subsequent defending behaviors when adolescents self-reported higher-than-usual victimization. In contrast, higher-than-usual defending behaviors predicted stronger-than-usual subsequent moral judgment of aggression only when adolescents self-reported lower-than-usual victimization. Peer-nominated victimization and gender did not show moderation effects. These findings emphasize the importance of fostering a positive cycle between moral judgment of aggression and defending behaviors, especially when supporting victimized adolescents.

Parental responses to children’s negative emotions, as a form of emotion socialization (ES), encompass a range of specific strategies commonly classified as supportive or unsupportive. However, empirical evidence for the presumed protective and adverse roles of supportive and unsupportive strategies for the risk of developing internalizing problems has been mixed, potentially due to differences in ES strategies examined under the two broad dimensions, as well as contextual (e.g., type of child emotion and sociocultural background within which the strategies were used) and methodological variations. To further understand the heterogeneity in research findings, this study took a meta-analytic approach to examine the associations between distinct ES strategies and internalizing problems in children and adolescents, as well as key moderators of these associations. A systematic literature search (updated in August 2025) yielded 133 studies comprising 1,050 relevant effect sizes. Overall, significant pooled associations with internalizing problems emerged for supportive ES strategies (r = -0.148) and unsupportive strategies (r = 0.199). However, override and expressive encouragement did not show the same negative associations as other presumed supportive strategies; minimization was less strongly linked to internalizing problems than other unsupportive strategies except for ignoring. Associations involving specific strategies were further moderated by factors conceptualized as key contexts of parents’ strategy-use (e.g., type of child negative emotion parents were responding to, child age and gender, sociocultural background). Overall, these findings underscore the complex and nuanced nature of how emotion-related parenting may be related to children’s mental health. They also provide evidence for more targeted and context-sensitive prevention strategies to promote adaptive ES practices.

The present study examined the moderating role of intrinsic interpersonal emotion regulation on the longitudinal associations between peer victimization and depressive symptoms among Chinese children. A two-wave longitudinal study spanning one year was conducted. Participants included 894 children at Time 1 (56% boys, Mage = 9.87 years) in Jinan, People’s Republic of China. Peer victimization, intrinsic interpersonal emotion regulation, and depressive symptoms were measured through self-report questionnaires. The results revealed that peer victimization was positively related to depressive symptoms one year later. More importantly, the longitudinal relationship between peer victimization and depressive symptoms were moderated by intrinsic interpersonal emotion regulation. Specifically, the longitudinal association between peer victimization and depressive symptoms became weaker among children with higher levels of intrinsic interpersonal emotion regulation. The findings highlight the protective role of intrinsic interpersonal emotion regulation in preventing victimized children from developing depressive symptoms and point out the path for improving victimized children’s mental health. Intervention programs should implement targeted strategies to provide more opportunities for victimized children to seek interpersonal interaction to regulate emotions.

This 1-year longitudinal study examined the linear and nonlinear associations between affinity for solitude and social, school, and psychological adjustment in adolescents. Participants included 2675 eighth-grade students (1341 boys; M age  = 14.3 years) in China. Affinity for solitude was assessed through self-reports, and adjustment data were collected from multiple sources. Results showed that affinity for solitude was positively associated with later prosociality. Moreover, affinity for solitude at low to moderate levels, but not at moderate to high levels, positively predicted leadership. Affinity for solitude at low to moderate levels was negatively associated with later aggression, behavioral problems, and learning problems, but the associations were nonsignificant at moderate levels and positive at higher levels. In addition, affinity for solitude at higher levels, but not at low to moderate levels, negatively predicted school attitudes. The results suggest that the moderate level of affinity for solitude is most beneficial for adolescents' adjustment.

This study aimed to (ASGQ) to assess social goals among Chinese adolescents. In Study 1, a 45-item pool was developed based on semi-structured interviews (n = 47, Mage = 13.43, SD = 0.76) and existing measures. Exploratory factor analysis with a sample of 772 adolescents (Mage = 13.35, SD = 0.67) identified a six-factor structure, comprising intimacy, social preference, popularity, social dominance, self-protection and academic improvement goals. Study 2 (n = 1297, Mage = 13.54, SD = 1.01) confirmed this structure through confirmatory factor analyses, established strong measurement invariance across gender, and demonstrated good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, convergent and discriminant validity, and criterion related validity. The ASGQ not only provides a psychometrically strong measure but also identifies an academically oriented social goal, highlighting the role of culture in shaping social motivation.

This 2-year longitudinal study investigated the role of peer group leaders' prosociality and aggression in social, school, and psychological adjustment among early adolescents. Participants included 2,155 middle school students (1,085 boys; initial Mage = 12.91 years) in China. Data were collected in 2019 and 2021 from multiple sources, including self-reports, peer nominations, teacher ratings, and school records. Peer groups and their leaders were identified using the WalkTrap community detection algorithm, resulting in 239 peer group leaders across 220 peer groups. Multilevel analyses showed that group leaders' prosociality was positively associated with members' later prosociality and social preference. Group leaders' aggression was positively associated with members' aggression and behavioral and learning problems. The results indicate the importance of group leaders' characteristics for adolescent development.

Although growing evidence suggests that some individuals use generative artificial intelligence (GAI) for emotional support and companionship, little is known about how prevalent these experiences are, who is most likely to report them, and how they relate to psychosocial adjustment. The present study addressed these questions using a regionally representative sample of 1,406 university students from 26 universities in Shanghai, China (Mage = 18.98 years, SD = 1.25, 59.7% female). Results indicated that most participants primarily viewed AI as a functional tool, whereas emotionally meaningful engagement remained relatively uncommon. Nevertheless, approximately one in seven participants reported moderate to high levels of personal disclosure or emotional attachment to AI. Emotional and relational engagement with AI was more common among individuals reporting greater interpersonal vulnerabilities and lower relational resources. Different forms of AI engagement also showed distinct patterns of association with psychosocial adjustment. Assistance-oriented engagement was associated with more positive interpersonal orientations, whereas more emotionally intensive forms of engagement were associated with poorer psychosocial adjustment. These findings suggest that emotional engagement with AI is already a meaningful experience for a subset of young adults and is embedded within broader patterns of interpersonal functioning and psychosocial adjustment.

Concern for mianzi, or the social perception of one's prestige and standing in the group, is an important socioemotional experience in Chinese adolescents. This 2-year longitudinal study examined relations between concern for mianzi and adjustment in junior high school students (N = 498; 266 boys), initially in seventh grade (Mage = 13 years), in rural China. Data were obtained from multiple sources including peer assessments, teacher ratings, and school records. The results showed that concern for mianzi positively predicted later sociability and academic achievement and negatively predicted later internalizing problems. Concern for mianzi also positively predicted later aggression and externalizing problems in boys. Aggression positively predicted concern for mianzi, and sociability positively predicted concern for mianzi in girls. The results indicate the developmental significance and the nature of concern for mianzi in rural Chinese context. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

This study explored whether individuals with different types of environmental sensitivity—a core personality trait—use distinct coping strategies, and how these patterns vary across individualistic (UK) and collectivistic (China) cultures. Participants included 259 UK and 369 Chinese undergraduates, categorized into five sensitivity types. We examined their use of problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidant coping strategies. Sensitivity types showed distinct coping profiles: highly sensitive individuals used all strategies more frequently; vigilant types favored avoidant coping, and vantage types leaned toward problem-focused coping. Notably, the link between sensitivity type and emotion-focused coping differed across cultures. These findings highlight the role of both individual traits and cultural context in shaping coping behaviors and underscore the importance of considering both in future research on stress and adaptation.

Social context plays an important role in shaping the development of socioemotional functioning. This one-year longitudinal study examined the moderating effects of classroom peer acceptance of students with depression (CPASWD) on relations between individual depression and adjustment among early adolescents. Participants in this study were students (N = 2,153; 1,088 boys), initially in fifth grade (Mage = 11 years), in elementary schools in China. Data on depression, peer preference, and social and school adjustment were obtained from multiple sources including self-reports, peer nominations, teacher ratings, and school records. Multilevel analysis revealed that depression was negatively associated with later social competence and academic achievement and positively associated with later behavioral problems in classrooms with lower CPASWD but the associations were nonsignificant or weaker in classrooms with higher CPASWD. The results suggest that CPASWD served as a protective factor that buffered against the development of further adjustment difficulties of adolescents with depressive symptoms. The study indicates the significance of classroom context for psychopathological development.