Understanding the attenuation rate of organic chemicals in aquatic environments is essential for assessing their long-term ecological risks and informing chemical management. Biodegradation is a key attenuation pathway for many chemicals, however, measuring biodegradation in situ is inherently complex, resource-intensive, and subject to high environmental variability. Consequently, regulatory frameworks and research efforts often rely on laboratory tests, intended to provide controlled and reproducible conditions. Despite their widespread application, few studies have evaluated how well these laboratory results represent biodegradation in real aquatic environments. In this study, we compared biodegradation rate constants (k) from a modified OECD 309 laboratory test with those derived from a field experiment in a subtropical river (Queensland, Australia). Biodegradation was measurable in both laboratory and field experiments for 23 chemicals spanning diverse structures. Rank-order agreement between laboratory k and field k was strong (Spearman ρ = 0.7, p < 0.001), and linear association was high (Pearson r = 0.8, p < 0.001) for the 16 chemicals that did not sorb strongly. The relative magnitudes of laboratory and field log k also aligned well (slope of the linear regression = 0.8), however, uncertainty remained (average root-mean-square-error equivalent to a factor of 2). These results demonstrate that the modified OECD 309 can capture much of the rank-order and relative magnitude of biodegradation, supporting its role as a higher-tier laboratory simulation test for persistence assessment.

Gas chromatography with electron capture negative ion high resolution mass spectrometry (GC-ECNI-Orbitrap-HRMS) was applied for the comprehensive analysis of halogenated natural products (HNPs) and anthropogenic organohalogen compounds in two passive air samples from Australian marine islands. This enabled the detection of ~250 halogenated compounds in the two air samples of which reference standards were available for only ten. For the evaluation, the compounds were listed according to the exact mass of the nonhalogenated backbone (halogens in the molecular formula were replaced with hydrogens; primary list) calculated in the next step. This meant that compounds with the same backbone were listed together, which was crucial for data interpretation. Specifically, the ~250 compounds could be traced back to ~100 different backbones. Four additionally calculated secondary lists allowed to indicate structurally related homologues if their exact masses were also found in the primary list. Key-findings include the detection of several sponge-derived HNPs and > 20 halogenated nitrobenzenes and nitrophenols, including iodine-containing ones. The primary and secondary list-based evaluation turned out to be a promising approach for other complex data sets with polyhalogenated compounds.

Importance:Australia is leading the world in efforts to reduce tobacco use by implementing high cigarette taxes and restrictive regulations on nicotine vaping products. However, concerns have emerged that these policies may unintentionally drive the expansion of illicit tobacco and vaping markets, potentially undermining public health gains. Objectives:To assess spatial and temporal changes in total nicotine, tobacco-derived nicotine, and illicit tobacco use across Australian regions of different remoteness from 2017 to 2023. Design, Setting, and Participants:This longitudinal, cross-sectional wastewater study was performed from April 2017 to April 2023. Wastewater samples were collected from as many as 55 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Australia, including 3 remoteness levels: major cities, inner regional, and outer regional to remote areas. The selected WWTPs serve more than 50% of the Australian population. Main Outcomes and Measures:Nicotine metabolites (cotinine and hydroxycotinine) and the tobacco-specific alkaloid (anabasine) were analyzed in wastewater samples using a validated liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method. Total nicotine and tobacco-derived nicotine consumption were back-estimated. Illicit tobacco use was identified in combination with the tobacco sales data. Results:Wastewater samples collected across Australia, representing 14 million people, were analyzed for back-estimation. Total nicotine consumption declined fastest in outer regional to remote areas (-2.2% annually; 95% CI, -3.2% to -1.1%), followed by inner regional areas (-1.4% annually; 95% CI, -2.1% to -0.8%), and remained stable in major cities. By comparison, tobacco-derived nicotine consumption decreased faster in major cities (-5.0% annually; 95% CI, -8.3% to -1.9%) and inner regional areas (-9.8% annually; 95% CI, -12.5% to -7.3%) than in the outer regional to remote areas (-2.3% annually; 95% CI, -6.0% to 1.8%). Illicit tobacco use was estimated to have increased from 1350 to 3400 tons from 2017 to 2023. Conclusions and Relevance:In this cross-sectional study of wastewater surveillance in Australia, different trends of tobacco use were observed across regions, accompanied by increasing use of illicit tobacco and vaping products. These findings provide evidence for future tobacco and vaping control policies. Ongoing wastewater monitoring is essential for evaluating new tobacco and vaping product control measures implemented in 2024.

The everyday use of plastic products exposes us to plastic-associated chemicals (PACs), which have been associated with risks to human health. We present the results of the Plastic Exposure Reduction Transforms Health Trial, with an observational cohort of 211 Australian participants and a 7-day pilot randomized controlled trial in 60 participants. Intervention groups received combinations of plastic-free kitchenware, low-plastic personal-care products and food sourced from more than 100 producers that minimized all plastic touchpoints from paddock to plate, while the control group received no intervention. The primary trial outcome was a reduction in urinary plastics-associated chemicals levels. In the cohort study, highly processed, plastic-packaged and canned foods were important modifiable factors for urinary PAC metabolite levels. Additionally, we observed negative associations between cardiometabolic biomarkers and higher urinary di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites. Our randomized controlled dietary intervention maintained participants’ daily energy intake while decreasing plastic exposure (P < 0.001) and urinary levels of mono-n-butyl phthalate, monobenzyl phthalate and bisphenol A by 37.5% (95% confidence interval (CI): −55.6, −12.0; P = 0.007), 53.5% (95% CI: −72.7, −20.6; P = 0.005) and 59.7% (95% CI: −82.5, −6.87; P = 0.033), respectively. Intervention groups provided with foods that had minimal to no contact with plastic had the broadest effect on PAC excretion, and replacing low-plastic personal-care products alone led to an independent decrease in urinary mono-n-butyl phthalate, compared to no intervention. Despite constant plastic exposures, limiting food plastics touchpoints decreases select PACs in 7 days. Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: ACTRN12622001252707 . Urinary levels of plastics-associated phthalates and bisphenols chemicals were associated with cardiometabolic risk biomarkers and can be lowered by reducing plastic use in food and personal-care products.

Understanding the stability of biomarkers during sewer transport is one of the crucial steps when applying wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) for assessing consumption or exposure to chemicals. Their stability could be impacted by chemical dosing, a common method used to control the generation of hydrogen sulfide in urban sewer networks. Nano zero valent iron (nZVI) has recently attracted attention due to its effectiveness on sulfide and methane removal. However, the impact of dosing nZVI on the transformation of biomarkers in sewers and the consequent influence on WBE estimation remains unknown. This study investigated the impact of nZVI dosage on adsorption and biotransformation processes of 20 pharmaceutical biomarkers in lab-scale sewer reactors. Dosing nZVI (50 mg Fe/L) effectively inhibited the production of sulfide and changed microbial communities in sewer biofilms. There was no adsorption observed when biomarkers interacted with nZVI only, indicating that adsorption to nZVI dosing was not the main mechanism for biomarker transformation. Meanwhile, the duration and amount of dosing nZVI had no impact on stable biomarkers with less 15% loss (e.g. cotinine, OH-cotinine, benzoylecgonine and acesulfame). In contrast, nZVI dosing affected the transformation of inherently moderately stable biomarkers like methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methylone, carbamazepine, ketamine and atenolol. These findings revealed the complex impacts of nZVI on mediating sewer conditions, biological compositions and in-sewer stability of biomarkers. An evaluation framework was applied to jointly consider the impact of nZVI dosing and hydraulic retention time on biomarker stability, which provides new knowledge for WBE’s application in dynamic sewer systems.

The cost-effectiveness and versatility of plastics have made them ubiquitous, leading to widespread human exposure to plastic associated chemicals like phthalates and bisphenols. While these chemicals are linked to adverse health effects, including hormonal and neurobehavioral, their bioavailability to the brain remains poorly understood. Thus, quantifying these chemicals in brain tissue is essential to assess blood-brain barrier permeation and support animal research.To address this, a novel method was developed to quantify 14 phthalate metabolites and 7 bisphenols using a modified QuEChERS extraction with a hexane clean-up for lipid removal and quantification on LC-MS/MS. The method detection limits for phthalate metabolites ranged from 0.02 ng/g to 0.8 ng/g of brain, while bisphenol detection limits varied between 0.02 ng/g and 2 ng/g.By successfully quantifying these contaminants in brain tissue the method delivers a highly sensitive way to assess blood-brain barrier permeation, measure cerebral exposure and contribute to animal studies of exposure to plastic associated chemicals.

Abstract Sunscreens are an important protection measure against harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation. However, potential health effects of several commonly used UV filters are currently being discussed. We conducted a human biomonitoring (HBM)-based exposure and risk assessment for octocrylene (OC), 2-ethylhexyl salicylate (EHS), and homosalate (HMS; a mixture of cis- and trans-HMS) in urine samples collected in Queensland and across Australia from 2012 to 2023, pooled by age, sex, and collection period (187 pools representing approximately 18,700 individuals). The pooled urines were analyzed by LC–MS/MS for specific exposure biomarkers of these UV filters. Determinants of exposure were investigated using Tobit regression. Biomarker concentrations increased over time, and clear age trends were observed, with children showing roughly one order of magnitude higher concentrations than adolescents/adults. Concentrations of the EHS biomarker 5cx-EPS exceeded the health-based guidance value (HBM-I) in 23% of children’s pooled urines. For the cis-HMS biomarker HMS-CA5, most pooled urines of children exceeded HBM-I (80%) and 53% even HBM-II. These findings indicate the need to reduce HMS exposure in at least some individuals, confirming the necessity for stricter regulations for homosalate in Australia, as recently enforced in the European Union and recommended by Australian authorities, to ensure sunscreen safety.

Temporal as well as age- and sex-related trends in human exposure to bisphenols, triclosan (TCS), triclocarban (TCC), and parabens were assessed using pooled urine samples (n = 150), representing approximately 14,000 individuals from the general Australian population, collected between 2012-13 and 2020-21. The arithmetic mean concentration of bisphenol A (BPA) decreased approximately by 50% from 2012-13 to 2020-21, while the bisphenol S (BPS) concentration doubled, indicating a gradual substitution of BPA with BPS in production and usage patterns. Both antimicrobial agents─TCS and TCC─exhibited decreasing trends from 2012-13 to 2020-21. In contrast, concentrations of the predominant parabens─methylparaben, ethylparaben, and propylparaben (PrP)─remained relatively stable over the past decade, reflecting their continued uses. TCS and TCC concentrations were generally higher in adults, whereas paraben concentrations were consistently higher in children. For BPA and BPS, all 2020-21 sample pools exceeded health-based reference values, indicating potential health concerns for the Australian population on average. Estimated daily intakes for PrP in samples of 0-15-year-old children frequently surpassed the reference value, suggesting a persistent exposure risk that has continued over the past decade. Overall, urinary concentrations of the target biomarkers in the Australian population were among the highest reported globally.

Triangulating complementary data sources can provide a more complete picture of population-level opioid use trends, both spatially and temporally. This study aimed to evaluate trends in fentanyl and oxycodone use in Australia from 2018 to 2022 using two data sources: Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) dispensing data and wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), and to assess their agreement. Wastewater samples from 57 wastewater treatment plants, covering all Australian states and territories, were analyzed for biomarkers of fentanyl and oxycodone to estimate consumption. PBS claims were also converted to consumption and spatially mapped to wastewater catchments, enabling site, state, and national comparisons with WBE data. Spatially, PBS and WBE estimates showed better alignment for fentanyl than for oxycodone at both the site and state/territory levels. Temporally, there were strong correlations between PBS and WBE data for both opioids, particularly for fentanyl. PBS and WBE trends had similar decreasing rates of use of the two opioids over time. Fentanyl consumption decreased by 0.29 mg/day/1000 people per year according to PBS data, and by 0.31 mg/day/1000 people per year based on WBE estimates. Corresponding values for oxycodone were 15.36 mg/day/1000 people and 16.85 mg/day/1000 people. By integrating these complementary data sets, our study provides strong evidence of the declining trend of fentanyl and oxycodone use in Australia after stricter prescription regulation. WBE and dispensing data provide a powerful framework for comprehensive opioid monitoring to inform targeted public health interventions.

Low- and no-calorie sweeteners (LNCS) are increasingly used as sugar substitutes in processed foods and sweetened beverages to reduce energy intake while maintaining taste. Given that poor diet remains a major contributor to non-communicable diseases, LNCS offer a strategy to lower caloric intake. However, ongoing concerns about their health effects highlight the need for a clearer understanding of LNCS exposure patterns within vulnerable groups of the population. Data on LNCS exposure and consumption trends, especially in the younger population, remain limited. Pooled urine samples were analyzed for four LNCS (acesulfame, sucralose, cyclamate, and saccharin) using Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Urinary concentrations were determined for various demographics (sex, age, and remoteness) to identify patterns of exposure, with focus on the younger population (< 5 years). Measured concentrations across all pools (n = 135) containing 3375 individuals ranged from 0.1 to 40 mg/L for acesulfame, 0.04-30 mg/L for saccharin, 0.01-30 mg/L for cyclamate, and 0.01-1.3 mg/L for sucralose. Saccharin showed significantly higher concentrations among children and adolescents (0-15 years) compared to adults (15-60 years). No significant differences were observed between sexes or age groups for acesulfame, cyclamate, and sucralose. LNCS concentrations did not vary significantly by remoteness. Esti-mated average daily saccharin intake was 600 μg/kgbw/day for children aged 0-5 years, representing 12% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI), compared to 25 μg/kgbw/day (0.5% of ADI) in adults. In the case of saccharin, the highest concentrations were observed in young children, which may represent a higher risk of potential adverse health outcomes. Average urinary concentrations of all LNCS were determined, serving as indicators of average population intake.

Ketamine is an anaesthetic drug with dissociative effects and is used in hospitals and for emergency treatment. Over the past four years, there has been increasing interest in the non-medical (recreational) use of ketamine in Australia. This study aimed to interrogate patterns in ketamine loads found in wastewater in Australia between December 2020 and April 2025. Daily influent wastewater samples were collected from up to 50 wastewater treatment plants over a week across state and territory capital city and regional sites every 4 months from all states and territories of Australia covering on average 53% of the total population. Wastewater was concentrated using solid phase extraction followed by quantitative analysis using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry to determine concentrations of the metabolite norketamine, with final concentrations flow and population normalised to units of excreted mg/day/1000 people. Norketamine excreted mass loads were compared with regionality and socioeconomic status. Considering the intended application, substantially higher mass loads of norketamine on weekends compared to weekdays would suggest the non-medical use of ketamine at weekends. Nationally, norketamine mass loads were higher for sites located in major city areas compared to those in ‘inner’ and ‘outer’ regional Australia. In addition, sites with higher socioeconomic status had higher mass loads of norketamine. Overall, norketamine mass loads have been increasing in Australia from 2022 to 2025, particularly in sites with higher socioeconomic status. This study demonstrates the value of ongoing wastewater monitoring, revealing both within-week and long-term shifts in ketamine excreted loads in Australia.

BACKGROUND:Plasticisers with endocrine-disrupting potential are ubiquitous and associate with obesity and type-2 diabetes (T2D), with higher levels reported in the Middle East. However, no data exist on plasticiser exposure in Bahrain where T2D affects 15% of the national population. METHODS:An observational exploratory study in T2D (n = 60) and controls (n = 96), analysed for 24 h urinary plasticiser levels (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)). Correlation and generalised linear model (GLM) analyses were employed to examine associations. RESULTS:T2D were older (p < 0.001), had higher body mass index (BMI) (p < 0.001), body weight (p < 0.001) and glycosylated haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) (p < 0.001). Correlation analysis revealed differences in inter-plasticiser, and plasticiser and biomarker relationships, with loss or reversal in T2D compared to controls. Mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) levels were higher in T2D (p = 0.04); however, regression analysis revealed significant association with age. The GLM analyses demonstrated marked differences in the levels of mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP), mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), monoethyl phthalate (MEP) and bisphenol S (BPS), with lower levels in T2D versus controls (B = -3.41, p = 0.01; B = -5.28, p < 0.001; B = -8.94, p < 0.001; B = -6.09, p = 0.006, respectively); however, these contrasts appeared to be substantially confounded by BMI and/or age. Positive influence of age and negative influence of BMI when observed across the full dataset were generally reversed in T2D. Levels were complementary to those previously reported for the Middle East. CONCLUSIONS:The study indicates the phthalate levels in Bahrain are elevated though complementary to studies of phthalates in the Middle East; within those levels, the study indicates differential exposure-response relationships with plasticisers, influenced by age and BMI, in those with T2D compared to healthy controls.

Ketamine, commonly used for anaesthesia, has seen increasing recreational use worldwide. In this study, we aimed to (i) assess ketamine use across different regions in Australia, and (ii) evaluate ketamine removal during wastewater treatment processes and the associated ecological risks. Wastewater samples from 106 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) across Australia, covering 61% of the Australian population were collected and analysed for ketamine and its metabolite, norketamine. We found ketamine use was numerically higher in Major Cities (42 +/- 82 mg/day/1000 people) compared to Inner Regional (32 +/- 53 mg/day/1000 people) and Outer Regional to Very Remote areas (28 +/- 44 mg/day/1000 people). The ketamine/norketamine ratio (4.9) remained stable from influent to effluent, suggesting that both compounds are removed at similar rates and that their relative abundance is largely stable during wastewater treatment. The mean removal efficiencies of ketamine and norketamine were 24% and 18%, respectively, demonstrating their persistence through conventional treatment processes. Removal performance was further compared across treatment configurations with different levels of complexity, including activated sludge, biofilter, chlorination, chemical phosphorus removal, and UV disinfection. These findings provide large-scale benchmarking data on the fate and removal of ketamine in wastewater treatment systems. Ecological risk assessment using effluent concentrations and predicted no-effect concentrations (PNEC) indicated negligible or low risk (risk quotient <0.1) to the aquatic environment.

Bisphenol-A (BPA) is a widely used chemical used in plastic and an endocrine disruptor ubiquitous in most developed settings. Exposure, particularly in early life, is implicated in a range of negative health outcomes. This study assessed whether various sources of BPA exposure in pregnant women, including diet, food preparation practices and personal care product use, are relevant predictors of measured BPA concentrations. Exposures were assessed via questionnaires. Maternal urine samples from 842 mothers were collected in trimester 3 and analysed for five bisphenols from the Barwon Infant Study, (infants born 2010-2013). Measurable BPA concentrations were detected in 54% of women. Positive associations with urinary BPA concentrations were observed for food-related factors, including a contemporaneous whole-foods dietary pattern and the proportion of raw foods introduced to the infant at 12 months, as well as renovation activities and use of dermal or spray products such as insect repellents. In contrast, cleaning frequency was negatively associated with BPA concentrations. Notably, women who reported attempting to reduce or avoid BPA exposure during pregnancy did not have lower urinary BPA concentrations. Findings show that BPA exposure goes beyond dietary and other ingestion-related factors, also occur via inhalation and skin absorption from the home environment and personal care products, respectively. Household cleaning practices offer a potential opportunity to reduce population-level exposure. The knowledge generated here will inform the design of bisphenol-reducing interventions for pregnant women or women of reproductive age.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by amyloid-β (Aβ) for ∼20 years prior to dementia onset. Phthalates, routinely added to plastics to increase flexibility, and bisphenol monomers, have been shown to interfere with neural activity/brain function. Phthalate and bisphenol exposure did not show association of individual urinary biomarkers with Aβ or clinical phenotype (mild cognitive impairment (MCI)/AD). Assessing biomarkers in quartiles, low mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), but not other biomarkers of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), was associated with Aβ+ and with having MCI/AD (q < 0.05), while high Bisphenol S (BPS) was associated with Aβ+ (q < 0.05). Mixture analysis shows significant association with MCI/AD but not Aβ.

Passive air samplers are well-suited for monitoring persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in ambient air. While the presence of POPs had been documented in Australian air, no data existed on structurally similar, halogenated natural products (HNPs), although these were frequently found in marine biota samples from Australia at levels exceeding those of anthropogenic POPs. This study reports quantitative data of the HNP 2,4,6-tribromoanisole (2,4,6-TBA) along with three POPs (polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 153 and 138 as well as hexachlorobenzene (HCB)) in six selected passive air samples from different Australian regions (islands, coastal cities, and inland). For the most abundant HNP, 2,4,6-TBA, time-averaged concentrations for one year were determined at up to 420 pg/m3 (One Tree Island), indicating its predominant natural production in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR). High concentrations of 2,4,6-TBA (17 pg/m3), even in the remote inland sample ( 800 km from the sea), led to the conclusion that the marine-derived 2,4,6-TBA was transported over long distances in air and can be found ubiquitously in Australian air. Even in the coastal cities of Brisbane and Darwin, 2,4,6-TBA levels were comparable to those of the PCBs. The HNP 2,3,3',4,4',5,5'-heptachloro-1'-methyl-1,2'-bipyrrole (Q1) was also detected in air from two islands. Its presence in air from One Tree Island was in line with expectations, given the high levels in marine mammal samples from the GBR. In direct comparison, the 15 times higher ratio of Q1/2,4,6-TBA in air from Phillip Island indicated Q1 could be even more abundant in this marine region than in the GBR.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of ubiquitously detected chemicals, some of which are highly persistent and bioaccumulative in humans. Within the general population, dietary ingestion is considered a primary pathway for PFAS exposure, and seafood consumption specifically has been associated with higher serum PFAS concentrations. Proximity of residence to the ocean may influence dietary habits, particularly seafood consumption, and exposure to geographically specific PFAS sources such as sea spray aerosols (SSA). The objective of this study was to evaluate potential spatial trends in serum PFAS concentrations between Australian coastal and island populations compared to those with inland residency. Human sera were obtained from deidentified surplus pathology samples and pooled with respect to geographical location, sex (male or female), and age group (males: ≥15-<45 years, ≥45 years; females: ≥15-<45 years, ≥45-<60 years, ≥60 years) stratification criteria. Serum samples were then analysed for PFAS using High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (HP LC-MS). A total of 13 of the 45 targeted PFAS were quantifiable in at least one pooled sample, including the detection of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) replacement compounds 5:3 fluorotelomer carboxylic acid (5:3 FTCA) and potassium 9-chlorohexadecafluoro-3-oxanonane-1-sulfonate (9Cl-F53B). Significant spatial trends were observed in males aged ≥45 years, with serum concentrations of PFOS, perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) and perfluoroheptane sulfonic acid (PFHpS) demonstrated to be 32-77% higher in pooled samples from island locations compared with inland. A similar trend was observed for PFHpS in coastal locations. Whilst deidentification of samples limited inferences about exposure pathways associated with the observed trends, this study indicated the feasibility of utilising pooled samples for assessing spatial variations in serum PFAS concentrations between geographically distinct subpopulations.

Organophosphate ester flame retardants (OPFRs) are extensively used as flame retardants and plasticizers in plastic products. Their ubiquitous presence in the environment has raised concerns regarding possible exposure and adverse health effects. Thirteen OPFR biomarkers were measured in pooled, de-identified surplus pathology urine samples collected cross-sectionally between 2012 and 2023 from an Australian population (18,700 individuals represented by 187 pools). We assessed age, sex, and temporal trends of OPFR metabolites detected in >60% of pools. Concentrations in both sexes significantly decreased with age for bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCIPP) and only in females for 2-ethylhexyl phenyl phosphate (EHPHP) and 2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl diphenyl phosphate (5-HO-EHDPHP). The opposite was observed in males for 1-hydroxy-2-propyl bis(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BCIPHIPP) and EHPHP. Levels of BDCIPP, BCIPHIPP, and 5-HO-EHDPHP were significantly higher in males than in females in pools from 2020-2021 and all sampling years combined. A temporal increase in concentrations was observed for BCIPHIPP (males) and EHPHP (females). Risk characterization ratios (RCRs) showed mean exposures below derived no-effect levels (DNELs). Our observed age and sex trends, as well as mean concentrations, were comparable to previously reported trends and levels from Australia and other geographical locations. This study highlights age, sex, and temporal trends of OPFR exposure in Australia.

Glyphosate is the most used herbicide globally, but little is known of its prevalence in the Australian environment or its behaviour during wastewater treatment. This study examined the concentration of glyphosate and its primary biodegradation product, aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA), in influent and effluent from 22 Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to inform exposure risks. Glyphosate was detected in all 22 WWTP influent samples, with concentrations ranging from 0.37 to 370 μg/L (mean: 22 ± 76 μg/L). In treated effluent, glyphosate was found in 82 % of samples with concentrations ranging from <LOQ (0.2 μg/L) to 11 μg/L (mean: 2.1 ± 3.1 μg/L). AMPA was detected in the influent of four of the 22 WWTP, with concentrations ranging from <LOQ to 32 μg/L (mean: 1.4 ± 5.2 μg/L). AMPA was detected in the effluent samples at eleven sites, with concentrations ranging from <LOQ to 19 μg/L. Glyphosate removal efficiency varied by treatment process. Plants with tertiary treatment (n = 10) removed on average 76 % of the glyphosate, while primary treatment sites (n = 4) removed the lowest (mean: -102 %; higher in the effluent). One tertiary treatment site had glyphosate concentrations 160 % higher in the treated effluent, suggesting additional sources post treatment. The mean population weighted mass load of glyphosate in treated effluent was 572 ± 856 mg per day per 1000 inhabitants, with an estimated 5000 kg/year of glyphosate reaching the Australian aquatic environment. A temporal study at two influent sites identified increasing glyphosate use over the past decade. Despite the widespread presence of glyphosate in effluent, all concentrations were all below the current Australian freshwater species protection guideline of 180 μg/L.

The widespread use of aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) in firefighting has led to significant contamination by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), including in building materials like concrete. This study investigated the initial phase of PFAS contamination in concrete, focusing on factors influencing PFAS retention and penetration. Laboratory experiments assessed the uptake kinetics of PFAS into concrete over one year, revealing that PFAS penetrated beyond surface layers, as confirmed by high-resolution mass spectrometry and desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging. PFAS mass loss into the concrete was limited, with 0.99% to 18.5% (mean 6.6%) of initial spiked PFAS being retained. Uptake behaviors were influenced by PFAS chain length and chemistry, concrete surface characteristics, as well as wetting/drying cycles, which accelerated PFAS penetration through the wick effect. Damaged concrete surfaces also showed faster PFAS penetration due to the exposed interfacial transition zones. Field-impacted concrete samples from Canada revealed some similar migration trends with lab-exposed concrete, with shorter-chain PFAS exhibiting greater mobility in the concrete matrix, though notable differences were observed between field and lab samples. These findings highlight the complex dynamics of PFAS contamination in concrete and provide insights into factors affecting PFAS penetration and retention.