AbstractIdentifying and listing substances or materials as contaminants of emerging concern(CECs) is not a simple task, and for the marine environment specifically is a challenge for environmental regulators, managers and researchers worldwide (Box 13.1) (Tornero V, and Hanke G (2017) Potential chemical contaminants in the marine environment: An overview of main contaminant lists. Office of the European Union Publications, Luxembourg. Available at: http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC108964/potential_chemical_contaminants_in_the_marine.pdf [Accessed 19 August2019].). Some of these agencies have widely different definitions of what a CEC actually is (Halden J Hazard Mater 282:2–9, 2015).

AbstractAnyone interested in the history of environmental chemistry, and in particular the management and remediation of pollution, soon encounters the term POP along with the Stockholm Conventionand the dirty dozen.

Future Science Book SeriesQuality Assurance & Quality Control of Environmental Field Sampling Free AccessQuality assurance/quality control in environmental field samplingChunlong Zhang, Jochen F Mueller & Munro R MortimerChunlong ZhangChunlong Zhang is a Professor of Environmental Science–Environmental Chemistry and the Program Chair of Environmental Science in the University of Houston-Clear Lake (TX, USA). His research interests are in the broad areas of environmental sampling and analysis, contaminant fate and transport, and soil and groundwater remediation. His current research focuses are analysis of emerging contaminants and their degradation products, environmental partitioning and degradation of legacy, as well as emerging compounds, including explosives, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, surfactants, and pharmaceutical and endocrine-disrupting compounds., Jochen F MuellerJochen F Mueller is a Professor for Environmental Toxicology at the University of Queensland's National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Queensland, Australia). His research focuses on exposure monitoring for organic pollutants, covering both environmental and human exposure. He has developed ongoing monitoring and archiving programs as part of an Australian environmental specimen bank. & Munro R MortimerMunro R Mortimer is a former investigative scientist with the EPA (Queensland, Australia). He holds an honorary appointment as Senior Fellow at the National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology at The University of Queensland. His research interests are in the fields of environmental sampling and analysis, and contaminant fate and transport, particularly in respect to persistent organic pollutants.Published Online:24 Feb 2014https://doi.org/10.4155/ebo.13.627AboutSectionsPDF/EPUB ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail The central theme of this book is to highlight quality issues in the taking of environmental samples rather than quality issues in laboratory analysis of sampled material. Numerous publications address quality issues in laboratory analysis [1,101,102], but quality issues related to the taking and handling of samples are commonly unrecognized, underestimated or ignored by environmental professionals involved in the chain of data acquisition, analysis and use. Therefore, this book is written for audiences who are new to sampling, as well as those who are more experienced but may face challenges with data quality under various scenarios of environmental, resource and budgetary constraints. To this end, the book will be suitable for students in environmental studies as well as practitioners – field personnel, project managers, data users and decision-makers, to name just a few.Written by 16 international scholars and practitioners in their respective areas, this book should stand out among existing literature in regard to its breadth and in-depth coverage of environmental sampling. This book is unique in that it provides recent development and research, as well as advice based on the practical experience of these experts. Each chapter includes a literature review and, where appropriate, a case study relevant to the topic. Our intent was to fill the gaps among standard methods and guidelines already published, including those regulatory and consensus methods approved by various agencies and professional organizations [1,101,102]. While this book differs from some widely used textbooks in environmental sampling and monitoring [2,3], it retains some basic information about sampling through the introduction to key terms and learning points for beginners. Chapters 1–3 introduce some essential knowledge about environmental sampling such as the concepts of quality assurance (QA)/quality control (QC), errors and uncertainty, data quality objectives and sampling design. Chapters 4–10 discuss the in-depth QA/QC applicable to sampling individual environmental matrices including surface water, stormwater, groundwater, wastewater, mine-generated wastewater, air and biological material.Specifically, in Chapter 1, Mueller and Mortimer introduce the fundamental concepts and principles of QA/QC in environmental sampling. This introductory chapter, which lays the foundation for the concepts of QA/QC during environmental sampling, illustrates how sampling QA/QC plays a pivotal role in the overall data quality. Michael Ramsey in Chapter 2 defines several common terms related to error and uncertainty, introduces statistical models for the estimation of uncertainty, and explains how uncertainty can be estimated in a way that includes all of the measurement steps from sampling to analysis. With a real-world example of lead-contaminated brownfield site, the results clearly indicate that overall measurement variance is dominated by the sampling variance, which contributes 99.2% of the measurement variance compared with 0.8% from the chemical analysis. This chapter illustrates how this 'combined' uncertainty information can be used to judge the fitness of the measurements, to set QC limits for sampling/measurement, and should be used to assess the potential limitations and reliability of the data as a basis for decision making.Development of a sampling strategy and design is a key step in planning an environmental field investigation. In Chapter 3, Shibata and Hausmann provide an overview and fundamental concepts of data quality objectives stressing the necessity to 'begin with the end in mind' (providing a basis for sound decision-making). They explain the logical series of steps the reader can use in developing a sampling strategy and design for a field investigation that provides the quality and types of data needed to meet investigation objectives and, ultimately, support defensible environmental decision-making. This chapter concludes with a case study on soil copper concentrations compared with naturally occurring background concentrations. They illustrated that statistical power improves as sample size increases until it reaches a 'diminishing return' in power with further increased sample size. The point of diminishing return is of practical concern when selecting a cost-effective sample size.In Chapter 4, Zhang and Zhang identify several primary issues in the current surface water sampling and monitoring network and address the importance of QA in sampling various surface waters such as rivers, lakes and reservoirs with different spatiotemporal variations. The major sources of errors and uncertainties, statistical approaches to incorporate spatiotemporal variations into sampling design are examined, followed by the description of QA components in surface water sampling, including optimal sample numbers, sampling locations and frequencies. This chapter concludes with a review of some recent development in surface water sampling and monitoring as an alternative to conventional grab samples, such as remote sensing, automatic samplers, in situ sensors and passive samplers; and provides case studies of two current surface water monitoring networks.Sampling stormwater presents unique QA/QC challenges and in Chapter 5 McCarthy and Harmel offer their expertise in the best practice use of automated water quality samplers to accommodate often short-lived, drastically variable, and sporadic stormwater events under adverse weather conditions. This chapter discusses discharge measurement, sample collection (e.g., intake location, tubes/pumps, storm threshold, timing and frequency, discrete versus composite, preservation and storage), number of samples required, and the resulting uncertainty in reported constituent concentrations and loads. Such information will be valuable to assist technical staff and project managers in designing, implementing and operating successful stormwater sampling projects, while efficiently utilizing project resources and minimizing data uncertainty.In Chapter 6, Guérin and colleagues discuss the unique aspects and special challenge in methodologies needed for groundwater sampling. Their experience in groundwater sampling QA/QC points to the importance of appropriate protocols for well purging and options for sampling different layers of an aquifer in reducing uncertainties in groundwater sampling data. The use of pumps, piping and tubing is an intrinsic part of groundwater sampling, and these introduce potential sources of introduced contamination, as well as potential loss or modification of analytes of interest. Recommendations are provided on groundwater sampling issues including minimum well numbers, well locations, sampling frequency and duration, and field measurements that can be made in association with the collection of groundwater samples to improve the quality and interpretation of groundwater data.The spatiotemporal occurrence of (micro)pollutants in raw wastewater and its implication for sampling QA/QC is addressed by Ort in Chapter 7. His research data indicate that concentrations of pollutants in wastewater can be subject to high variation within short time frames (i.e., anywhere from seconds [close to the source], to minutes [in transit in sewers and influents to sewage treatment plants] up to hours [effluent of sewage treatment plants]). If it requires representative average concentrations over 2 h, samples may need to be collected at 2-min intervals but they can be pooled over 2 h to minimize analytical effort. However, it is inadequate to merely collect a grab sample every 2 h. His findings help in setting up appropriate sampling schemes for various applications (e.g., quantification of hospital effluents, influents to sewage treatment plants or transformation of pollutants in sewers).In Chapter 8, Smith highlights special circumstances and challenges in maintaining quality for mine-generated wastewater sampling. Mine sites are often remote, with infrastructure, logistic and human resource limitations. The generally long lifecycle of mining, coupled with the generally high turnover of staff at mine sites, also make management of QA in sampling difficult. These issues can all be managed, but do require careful planning and regular review of the monitoring data and their quality, even though the methods of quality management are no different from those used for monitoring for other purposes.In Chapter 9, key QA/QC requirements in air sampling are addressed by Rago, noting that since human inhalation exposures are often assessed using these methods, QA/QC considerations can be of heightened importance. The chapter covers the QA/QC aspects of sampling indoor air, ambient (outdoor) air and soil gas, addressing both 'whole air' sampling using evacuated canisters and 'concentration' sampling using sorbent media to capture contaminants. In addition to checks for contamination of samples and losses or dilution of analytes by equipment leakage, the chapter also covers numbers and placement of samplers, and the timing of sampling needed to support the collection of representative air samples under a variety of scenarios.Finally, in Chapter 10, Bignert provides some insight into QA issues in both temporal and spatial sampling of biological material, particularly the use of power analysis to assure quality in long-term trend monitoring on the basis of a temporal database in the northern Baltic Sea. For an increased statistical power in biological studies, the author stresses the importance of selecting biological matrices (e.g., species, sex, age, tissues and part of tissue), and adjusting other confounding factors, such as fat-normalized contaminant concentrations, seasonal variation due to spawning, and differences in physical condition due to malnutrition and migration. His discussions on the proper treatment of censored data (e.g., below detection limits) and extreme values (outliers) are also valuable to the QA/QC in sampling other environmental matrices.The outline of the book contents clearly indicates the tremendous amount of time and expertise contributed by the invited authors to this important undertaking. As Editors of this book, we were very privileged to work with them and share our common enthusiasm toward QA/QC in environmental sampling.AcknowledgementsThe Editors are grateful to the authors of this book for their willingness to devote time from their busy schedules. In addition, this book would not be possible without Ruth Williamson's passion for the subject of environmental sampling and her dedicated work and professionalism in coordinating all of the correspondence, revisions and publisher-related matter in a timely manner.Financial & competing interests disclosureThe authors have no relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript. This includes employment, consultancies, honoraria, stock ownership or options, expert testimony, grants or patents received or pending, or royalties.No writing assistance was utilized in the production of this manuscript.References1 American Public Health Association; American Water Works Association; Water Environment Federation. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 22nd Edition. Rice EW, Baird RB, Eaton AD, Clesceri LS (Eds). Washington DC, USA (2012) . Google Scholar2 Zhang C . Fundamentals of Environmental Sampling and Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, NJ, USA (2007) . Crossref, Google Scholar3 Gilbert RO . Statistical Methods for Environmental Pollution Monitoring. Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY, USA (1987) . Google ScholarWebsites101 EPA. Test methods for evaluating solid wastes physical/chemical methods, SW-846 method. www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/test/main.htm Google Scholar102 US Geological Survey. Water-quality methods and techniques. http://water.usgs.gov/owq/methods.html Google ScholarFiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Quality Assurance & Quality Control of Environmental Field SamplingMetrics Downloaded 672 times History Published online 24 February 2014 Published in print February 2014 Information© Future Science Ltd© Future Science LtdPDF download

This article provides practical guidance on the use of passive sampling methods (PSMs) that target the freely dissolved concentration (Cfree) for improved exposure assessment of hydrophobic organic chemicals in sediments. Primary considerations for selecting a PSM for a specific application include clear delineation of measurement goals for Cfree, whether laboratory‐based “ex situ” and/or field‐based “in situ” application is desired, and ultimately which PSM is best‐suited to fulfill the measurement objectives. Guidelines for proper calibration and validation of PSMs, including use of provisional values for polymer–water partition coefficients, determination of equilibrium status, and confirmation of nondepletive measurement conditions are defined. A hypothetical example is described to illustrate how the measurement of Cfree afforded by PSMs reduces uncertainty in assessing narcotic toxicity for sediments contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The article concludes with a discussion of future research that will improve the quality and robustness of Cfree measurements using PSMs, providing a sound scientific basis to support risk assessment and contaminated sediment management decisions. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2014;10:210–223. © 2014 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

CONTENTS 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 General Aspects of Sampling and Sample Handling 31.2.1 Initial Considerations 3 1.2.2 Spatial Aspects 3 1.2.3 Temporal Aspects 3 1.2.4 Number of Samples 5 1.2.5 Sample Volume 5 1.2.6 Storage and Conservation 61.2.6.1 Contamination 6 1.2.6.2 Loss 6 1.2.6.3 Sorption 7 1.2.6.4 Recommended Storage 8 1.2.6.5 Quality Control in Water Sampling 81.3 Sampling Strategies for Different Ecosystems 8 1.3.1 Lakes and Reservoirs 13 1.3.2 Streams and Rivers 151.3.2.1 Location of Sampling within the Stream 15 1.3.2.2 Description of the Longitudinal Gradient 15 1.3.2.3 Temporal Changes of Water Quality 16 1.3.2.4 Using Sediments to Integrate over Time 171.3.3 Estuarine and Marine Environments 17 1.3.4 Urban Areas 181.4 Sampling Equipment 20 1.4.1 General Comments 20 1.4.2 Manual Sampling Systems 201.4.2.1 Simple Sampler for Shallow Water 20 1.4.2.2 Sampler for Large Quantities in Shallow Water 20 1.4.2.3 Simple Sampler for Deepwater 20 1.4.2.4 Deepwater Sampler (Not Adding Air to the Sample) 21 1.4.2.5 Deepwater Sampler for Trace Elements (Allowing Airto Mix with the Sample) 21 1.4.3 Systems for Sampling the Benthic Boundary Layerat Different Depths 23 1.4.3.1 Deepwater (>50 m) 23 1.4.3.2 Shallow Water (<50 m) 231.4.4 Automatic Sampling Systems 23 1.4.4.1 Sampling Average Concentrations 24 1.4.4.2 Sampling Average Concentrations-Sampling Buoy 24 1.4.4.3 Event-Controlled Sampling of Industrial Short-TermContamination 24 1.4.4.4 Rapid Underway Monitoring 25 1.4.4.5 Event-Controlled Sampling: Surface Water Runoff fromAgricultural Land 27 1.4.4.6 Other Considerations Regarding AutomaticSampling Equipment 27 1.4.5 Extraction Techniques 291.4.5.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction of Large Volumes 30 1.4.5.2 Solid-Phase Extraction Techniques 30 1.4.5.3 Passive Sampler Devices 341.4.6 Concentration of Contaminants in Suspensions and Sediment 38 1.4.6.1 Suspended Particle Sampler for Small Streams 39Acknowledgment 41 References 42The quality of output from an environmental sampling project is limited by whichever is the weakest component-sampling or analysis. Progress in analytical protocols, including the development of new and more sophisticated techniques described elsewhere in this handbook, results in the taking of samples increasingly becoming the quality-determining step in water quality assessment [1,2]. Conclusions based on laboratory results from the most careful analysis of water samples may be invalidated because the original collection of the samples was inadequate or invalid. Poor sampling design or mistakes in sampling technique or sample handling during the sampling process inevitably lead to erroneous results, which cannot be corrected afterward [3-7].

Colloids such as surfactant micelles can act as transport facilitators for highly lipophilic, generally immobile contaminants in soil. Following a fire at a pesticide facility, this study investigated vertical and lateral migration of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in heterogeneous soil beneath bunded ponds, where contaminated wastewater containing high surfactant loads was stored until remediation. Initially, surface and subsurface soil was obtained during excavation, and subsequently intact cores to 5.7 m were collected. ΣPCDD/F concentrations were elevated in the wastewater (15-81 ng/L) and correspondingly in pond surface soils (6.1-61 ng/g). Maximum ΣPCDD/F concentrations were, however, observed at 2-2.5 m depth (68-130 ng/g), far below their expected mobility range based on physicochemical properties. Congener specific analysis further indicated that PCDD/F mobility was reversed, with the least water-soluble congener migrating to the greatest extent. The presence of higher chlorinated PCDD/Fs throughout a core collected in the direction of groundwater flow indicated subsequent lateral transport. These results provide field evidence for rapid vertical migration (2.4 m in <4 months) of highly lipophilic PCDD/Fs and suggest surfactant facilitated transport as the dominant transport mechanism. Quantification and evaluation of such fundamental changes in contaminant transport and fate in the presence of surfactants is required to identify areas at risk of groundwater contamination.

We first used semipermeable membrane devices as samplers to evaluate concentrations of organochlorines and PAHs in the Brisbane River in 1998. Here we revisit this work and repeat the study a decade later in the same season (summer), also taking account of results from a similar study involving PAHs in the summer of 2001–2002. The accumulation of organochlorines and most PAHs in the samplers in the recent assessment was substantially less than in the 1998 deployment, suggesting that the ambient concentrations of these chemicals have decreased considerably over the last decade. In all cases there was high reproducibility of the mass of chemicals accumulated in the sampler. We used performance reference compounds in the later deployment, and assuming that the kinetics were similar in both deployment periods, we estimate that the concentration of dieldrin, the organochlorine found at highest concentrations, decreased from approximately 3.9ng/L to about 1.4ng/L. The decrease of most other analytes of interest including DDE and DDD was greater, potentially indicating that dieldrin is still entering the Brisbane River through run-off from urban areas where it was used widely for treatment of termites until 1995. DDT use in Australia ceased in the mid 1980s.

Contaminants with low water solubility and high carbon-water partitioning are generally considered to have low mobility in soils. However, the presence of co-contaminants can act as transport facilitators for otherwise low mobility organic compounds (LMOCs). Little is known about facilitated contaminant migration and this process is rarely considered in evaluations of off-site transport and groundwater contamination potential for LMOCs. This study investigated the vertical migration of dioxins in soil, released together with high volumes of pesticides and adjuvants following an accidental fire at a pesticide production facility. Two intact cores (to 6.7 m) were obtained below clay-lined ponds where contaminated run-off water was contained. PCDD/Fs were found throughout both cores, with maximum concentrations (130 and 94 ng/g) at 2-2.5 meters. A reversed mobility was observed throughout the core depths with the least mobile congener OCDD transported further than the relatively more mobile TCDD. Such a reversal is consistent with surfactant facilitated transport, which is suggested to be the primary pathway for the observed migration. These results highlight that the paradigm of LMOCs being non-mobile in soils should be considered carefully together with application-specific and environmental factors which may have the ability to considerably change the predicted environmental fate of these chemicals.

We report a survey on the occurrence of estrogens (estrone, E1; 17 beta-estradiol, E2; 17 alpha-ethynylestradiol, EE2) and xenoestrogens (bisphenol-A, BPA: 4-t-octylphenol, 4-t-OP: 4-nonylphenols, 4-NP; and nonylphenol mono- and di-ethoxylates, NPE1 and NPE2) in effluents from five wastewater treatment plants and their receiving waters in South Fast Queensland. The total xenoestrogen concentrations in effluent ranged between 2446 ng/L and 6579 ng/L, with 4-NP and NPE1-2 having much higher concentration levels than BPA and 4-t-OP. The estrogen levels in effluent varied from 9.12 to 32.22 ng/L for El, from 1.37 ng/L to 6.35 ng/L for E2 and from 0.11 ng/L to 1.20 ng/L for EE2. No significant differences (p<0.05) in the concentrations of the selected estrogenic compounds were found for the effluents from the five sewage treatment plants. The estrogens and xenoestrogens were also found in the receiving waters at relatively lower concentration levels due to dilution of effluents in the rivers. Based on the chemical analysis data and relative potency of the compound from in vitro and in vivo bioassays from the literature, the calculated in vitro EEQ values (estrogen equivalents) in the receiving river waters downstream of the effluent discharge points ranged from 1.32 to 11.79 ng/L, while the in vivo EEQ values (vitellogenin response in rainbow trout) ranged from 2.48 to 21.18 ng/L. The three estrogens accounted for the majority of the EEQ in the water samples. This study indicates that the rivers of South East Queensland are at potential risk. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Current policy and management for marine water quality in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) in north-eastern Australia primarily focusses on sediment, nutrients and pesticides derived from diffuse source pollution related to agricultural land uses. In addition, contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) are known to be present in the marine environments of the GBR and the adjacent Torres Strait (TS). Current and projected agricultural, urban and industrial developments are likely to increase the sources and diversity of CECs being released into these marine ecosystems. In this review, we evaluate the sources, presence and potential effects of six different categories of CECs known to be present, or likely to be present, in the GBR and TS marine ecosystems. Specifically, we summarize available monitoring, source and effect information for antifouling paints; coal dust and particles; heavy/trace metals and metalloids; marine debris and microplastics; pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs); and petroleum hydrocarbons. Our study highlights the lack of (available) monitoring data for most of these CECs, and recommends: (i) the inclusion of all relevant environmental data into integrated databases for building marine baselines for the GBR and TS regions, and (ii) the implementation of local, targeted monitoring programs informed by predictive methods for risk prioritization. Further, our spatial representation of the known and likely sources of these CECs will contribute to future ecological risk assessments of CECs to the GBR and TS marine environments, including risks relative to those identified for sediment, nutrients and pesticides.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are incorporated into a variety of manufactured products to reduce flammability. Aquatic sediments provide a final sink for persistent organic pollutants such as PBDEs. This is concerning since PBDEs have the potential to bioaccumulate and biomagnify and food intake has been suggested as one of the major routes of human exposure (Wijesekera et al., 2002) with ingestion of aquatic organisms such as fish and shellfish resulting in the highest intake of PBDEs compared to other food groups (Darnerud et al., 2006, Kiviranta et al., 2004). Prior to the current study, no data were available on PBDE contamination in the Australian aquatic environment. However, after finding unexpectedly elevated PBDE concentrations in human milk and blood sera from Australia with concentrations higher than found in Europe but lower than found in North America (Harden et al., 2004, Harden et al., 2005) it was decided to investigate PBDEs in the Australian environment. This study aimed to obtain background data on PBDE concentrations and congener profiles in sediment from samples representing various Australian locations. The sampling plan was designed to allow assessment of PBDE concentrations by salinity and land-use type.

Brominated flame retardants, including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been incorporated in numerous products to reduce flammability. Depending on their bromination, PBDEs are relatively persistent in the environment and have the potential to bioaccumulate through the food web. The present study was initiated to provide a better understanding on the levels and possible origin of PBDEs in the aquatic environment of Australia.PBDEs were detected at 35 out of 46 sites and concentrations were relatively low in the majority of samples analysed. Mean standard deviation and median Sigma PBDE concentrations across all sites were 4707 +/- 12,580 and 305 pg g(-1) dw, respectively, excluding the limit of detection. At 83% of sites, concentrations were below 1000 pg g(-1) dw, whereas elevated levels were found at sites downstream of STP outfalls and in areas dominated by industrial and urban land-use types. Concentrations of PBDEs differed significantly (p=0.007) among sites according to predominant type of land-use. Significantly (p=0.02) higher Sigma PBDE concentrations were also present in estuarine compared to freshwater environments, while PBDEs were below the limit of detection at the marine site. At most sites, BDE-209 contributed the highest proportion to the Sigma PBDE concentrations. The exception was one site with an elevated concentration of BDE-183. Sampling and analytical variability were investigated as part of this study. Results showed generally satisfactory results for repeat analysis at a different laboratory and low variability among samples collected within 1000 in at low contaminated sites. However, at sites with elevated PBDE levels, sampling variability was high, with several fold to magnitudes of higher concentrations present among replicate sites.Corresponding to findings from elsewhere, these results demonstrate that urban and industrial activities provide the key input sources of PBDEs to the aquatic environment and provide a baseline for further investigation into the specific origin of contamination, as well as information on the background status of aquatic sediment contamination with PBDEs. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.