Harmonia axyridis is a well-known predatory ladybird beetle renowned for its high degree of elytral pattern polymorphism. The black and yellow-red complementary areas of elytra are respectively attributed to the deposition of melanin and carotenoid pigments, while the carotenoid profiles are likely to be affected by the phenotypic plasticity of dark spots. Here, using a goldenrod-colored mutant (named gr) and a melanic mutant (named ml), we examined their elytral carotenoid profiles and compared them with those of the wild type (named wt). Moreover, we determined whether similar changes could be detected from the newly emerged stage (NE) to the 5-day post-emergence stage (PE5). The results showed that the non-oxidative carotenes accounted for over 95% of the total carotenoid pool in all the three morphs. Moreover, identical composition of carotenes was observed at both stages, with (E/Z)-phytoene and γ-carotene comprising the majority (over 70%). However, distinct profiles of carotenes were detected in ml as compared to wt and gr. Additionally, both ml and gr presented several specific xanthophylls compared to wt. Nevertheless, the three morphs showed similar changes in carotenoid composition from stage NE to PE5, i.e. the proportion of light-colored pigment (colorless (E/Z)-phytoene) decreased, while the proportion of colored pigments (lycopene and γ-carotene) increased. Our findings suggested that while different carotenoid profiles were detected in the two body color mutants, both mutants exhibited a conserved strategy for carotenoid allocation to the elytra during post-emergence development. These findings will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the carotenoid-based coloration in insects, particularly its correlation with the melanin-based pigmentation.

The pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) is a destructive phloem-feeding pest of alfalfa. Its overreliance on chemical insecticides necessitates the development of sustainable, plant-based resistance strategies. Plant flavonoids are important in induced defense, but their dynamic responses to aphid feeding and subsequent insecticidal effects remain unclear. Using the highly resistant alfalfa variety ‘Gannong No. 5’ (GN5), this study integrated behavioral assays, performance bioassays, untargeted and targeted metabolomics, and exogenous flavonoid feeding assays to investigate how pea aphid infestation alters flavonoid metabolism and thereby affects aphid performance. Bioassays confirmed strong antibiosis of GN5 against A. pisum. Behavioral choice assays showed that, at 2 h post-release, aphids significantly avoided plants pre-infested for 12 h and 48 h, but not those pre-infested for 24 h; by 8 h post-release, they significantly avoided all pre-infested plants regardless of infestation duration. Prolonged pre-infestation (48 h) also reduced average fecundity per female. Non-targeted metabolomics revealed substantial metabolic reprogramming after 48 h of aphid feeding, with most flavonoids and isoflavonoids significantly upregulated. Targeted metabolomics identified 28 flavonoids, among which only sakuranetin and chrysin were significantly upregulated after 48 h, indicating their specific induction. Finally, performance bioassays confirmed insecticidal effects in a concentration-dependent manner: sakuranetin at 0.1 μg/μL reduced reproduction, and at 10.0 μg/μL reduced survival; chrysin at 0.1 μg/μL reduced both survival and reproduction. Collectively, these results demonstrate that pea aphid feeding triggers the induction of specific defensive flavonoids in GN5, which may contribute to antibiosis. This study provides a theoretical basis for exploring flavonoid-based approaches in sustainable aphid management.

Acyrthosiphon pisum (pea aphid) is a major pest of leguminous crops, resulting in substantial economic losses worldwide. In recent years, entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) and RNA interference (RNAi) have emerged as effective biological control strategies for managing A. pisum. This study evaluated five entomopathogenic fungal strains and combined with transcriptomic analysis, to investigate the pathogenic mechanism of Akanthomyces dipterigenus against A. pisum, and explored the potential roles of two genes ApSlc19a3 and ApEXT2 in the defense against fungal infection. A. dipterigenus demonstrated the highest pathogenicity against adult A. pisum (LC50: 1.22 × 104 conidia mL-1; LT50: 3.909 d at 1.0 × 108 conidia mL-1). Sublethal and transgenerational effects showed that LC50 treatments of A. dipterigenus significantly reduced the longevity and fecundity of F0, LC50 treatment significantly reduced the mean generation time (T) and adult longevity in F1, LC30 treatment decreased the intrinsic rate of increase (r) and finite rate of increase (λ) in F1, along with a reduction in fecundity. Transcriptomic analysis of A. pisum infected with A. dipterigenus identified ApSlc19a3 and ApEXT2 as genes responsive to fungal infection, differentially expressed across developmental stages, and highly transcribed in the midgut and cuticle. RNAi silencing of these genes significantly enhanced the susceptibility of adult A. pisum to fungal infection. Therefore, the combined application of this RNAi approach with A. dipterigenus exhibits notable potential for controlling A. pisum. These findings provide important insights and a promising framework for future mechanistic studies and the implementation of biological control within sustainable pest management strategies.

The diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), is a migratory pest of cruciferous crops. This species cannot survive winters in high-latitude regions, where populations primarily consist of migrants from year-round breeding areas. The movement of these moths between regions can influence insecticide resistance patterns in the recipient region by introducing resistant alleles from source populations. In this study, we investigated the adult population dynamics of DBM in two recipient locations in northern China over multiple years and analyzed variation in resistance mutations during this period. The two sampling locations showed similar DBM population dynamics, with the three highest peaks in the number of captured DBM occurring in late May, late June, and mid-August. Among the 16 loci, Q4594L showed the highest mean frequency, followed by A1060T and G324A. Although average frequencies of resistance mutations remained relatively stable across years, there were marked fluctuations in May to June and August to September, which may be related to the introduction of varied sources by migration and/or local selection. Additionally, we found that deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium were common for many of the resistance loci. Our study demonstrated variation in resistance mutation frequency in the DBM, likely caused by immigrants from various sources and local selection. These results provide novel insights into the temporal dynamics of insecticide resistance in DBM. They may help in targeting chemical control of this pest, but additional data are required to understand the impacts of long-distance migration versus local selection on resistance.

Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) is a globally distributed agricultural pest with a broad host range and a high propensity for developing pesticide resistance, urgently requiring novel control strategies based on molecular targets. In this study, comparative transcriptomic analysis identified a previously uncharacterized gene, TuPSEG, which is specifically highly expressed in mite proterosomas and is induced by host plants. Sequence analysis revealed that TuPSEG encodes a hydrophilic secreted protein containing a signal peptide, with no known conserved domains, and exhibits high conservation only among closely related Tetranychus species. Developmental expression profiling showed that TuPSEG expression peaks in adult females, and its transcript levels significantly increase with prolonged feeding, with stronger induction observed after transfer to non-adapted hosts such as Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck and Solanum lycopersicum (L.). RNAi-mediated silencing of TuPSEG reduced feeding damage area on Glycine max leaves by 53.58% and resulted in a corrected mortality rate of 30.82% over 10 d, whereas survival was unaffected under artificial diet feeding, indicating that this gene specifically participates in plant feeding. Off-target assessment demonstrated that dsRNA targeting TuPSEG poses a minimal predicted risk to non-target organisms (natural enemies and crops) while exhibiting high specificity toward closely related spider mite species. In conclusion, TuPSEG plays a key role in host adaptation of spider mites, and its species-specificity offers a potential target for developing RNAi-based precision control technologies.

Spider mites are globally distributed pests that cause significant damage to a wide range of crops. The use of predators for the control of pest mites is an effective and environmentally sustainable strategy. Stethorus punctillum Weise (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), a well-known predator of spider mites, has been widely recognized as the primary natural enemy of pest mites in China. However, its pest control efficacy, particularly under field conditions, is not well known. In this study, we evaluated the biocontrol impact of S. punctillum on a key spider mite pest, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina: Tetranychidae), through a combination of laboratory and field experiments. Laboratory assays showed that the predation rates in relation to the prey numbers were consistent with the Holling-II functional response model. The actually maximum predatory numbers of third-instars of S. punctillum, 3-day-old female adults, and male adults on the pest were 116.67, 181.67, and 166.67 mites per day, respectively, corresponding to the theoretically maximum values of 391.26, 498.07, and 413.95 mites per day individually. Field exclusion experiments demonstrated that both larval and adult stages of S. punctillum significantly suppressed spider mite populations’ growth across three different initial prey densities (80, 110, and 140 individuals for larvae; 100, 150, and 200 individuals for adults) on three economically important crops: maize, cotton, and apples. Within 96 h of their introduction, the pest population growth rate was reduced by 13.2–43.2% by larvae and 25.3–51.5% by adults of S. punctillum compared to predator-free control groups. These findings demonstrate that S. punctillum has a significant control efficacy on spider mite populations under both laboratory and field conditions, highlighting its potential as a promising biocontrol agent for integrated spider mite management in Northwest China.

Stethorus punctillum Weise, a predatory beetle attacking phytophagous mites in northwest China, remains underutilized for biological control. Current over-reliance on synthetic acaricides necessitates evaluation of their non-target effects on this predator, particularly their safety and sublethal impacts. Here, we assessed the acute toxicity of four acaricides to S. punctillum in laboratory bioassays and then focused on sublethal impacts of abamectin on adult predation efficiency and lifespan. Based on the LC50 values, the acute toxicities of the four acaricides tested against S. punctillum larvae and adults both ranked as follows (from greatest to least): abamectin > pyridaben > spirotetramat > petroleum oil. All acaricides exhibited selective toxicity (STR: 2.16-182.49) with moderate to low risk (SF: 0.46-8.71). Notably, petroleum oil, despite showing the lowest acute toxicity to S. punctillum, posed the highest risk to larvae (SF: 0.46-0.77). Abamectin exposures at LC20 or LC50 significantly compromised S. punctillum adults, prolonging prey handling time (females: 33-100%; males: 40%), reducing maximum daily predation (females: 25-50%; males: 29%), and shortening adult lifespan (females: 2.34-3.17 days; males: 3.95-5.08 days). This study assessed the safety of four commonly used acaricides for S. punctillum, revealing abamectin-induced impairments to key biological traits. Our findings offer critical insights for risk-aware acaricide selection and integrated spider mite management strategies in agroecosystems in northwest China.

Many insect species demonstrate thermal-induced phenotypic plasticity in melanin levels as an effective temperature adaptation strategy. Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (f. succinea morph), known for its diverse elytra patterns, generally displays a reduction in the overall melanin level and spot number on both the dorsal cuticle of pupa and elytra as temperature increases. In our laboratory colony, we have discovered a novel melanism mutant (ml) that exhibits elevated melanin levels throughout most developmental stages compared to the wild type (wt). In this study, we examined whether ml displays similar thermal-induced phenotypic plasticity as wt under different temperatures (17.5°C, 25°C, and 32.5°C). Our findings indicated that ml, inherited in a Mendelian autosomal recessive pattern, exhibited much smaller changes in the occurrence frequency of dark spots on dorsal surfaces of both the pupa and the elytra alongside temperature variations. Additionally, ml consistently had significantly higher melanin levels than wt across all three temperature conditions. Surprisingly, despite having larger dark spot areas on the elytra, ml had higher carotenoid concentrations than wt at 25°C and 32.5°C, while no significant difference was observed at 17.5°C. These results indicated that the melanism mutant ml of H. axyridis displays distinct thermal-induced melanism plasticity compared to the wild type, which will enhance our understanding of the thermal responses of insects differing in genetic background.

Heat shock proteins (HSPs) play a fundamental role in mediating thermotolerance in insects; however, their stage-specific contributions to thermal adaptation in the corn aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis, remain poorly characterized. Here, we systematically characterized Hsp70-mediated thermotolerance mechanisms across the developmental stages of this devastating maize pest. A total of 15 Hsp70 genes were identified, each containing conserved functional domains such as EEVD and GIDLGTTYS motifs, ATP-binding sites, and nuclear localization signals. Subcellular localization predictions revealed a typical eukaryotic distribution pattern, with 12 localized to the cytosol, two to the endoplasmic reticulum, and one to the mitochondria. Following sequence alignment, nine non-redundant Hsp70 genes were selected for further functional analysis. Thermotolerance assays supported that third-instar nymphs were the most susceptible to heat stress, showing only 53.0 % survival at 40 °C, whereas adults exhibited the highest tolerance, with an LT50 of 43.11 °C. Expression profiling revealed significant upregulation of five Hsp70 genes-R. maidis Hsp70-8, -11, -12, -13 and -14-specifically in third-instar nymphs at 36 °C. RNAi-mediated silencing of these genes resulted in a 56.0-68.0 % increase in mortality among third-instar nymphs. Additionally, the recombinant R. maidis HSP70-7 (55 kDa) was successfully expressed. These findings underscore the existence of developmental trade-offs in thermotolerance in R. maidis and emphasize the functional diversification of Hsp70 genes, supporting their potential as RNAi targets for pest management under increasing climatic temperatures.

The polyphagous pest mite Tetranychus truncatus represents a major and expanding agricultural threat worldwide due to its exceptional ability to rapidly develop acaricide resistance and endure various abiotic stresses, a challenge exacerbated by global climate change. Although heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) molecular chaperones are known to play essential roles in cellular stress responses, their specific function in mediating cross-tolerance in mites remains insufficiently explored. In this study, we identified and systematically characterized five Hsp70 genes in T. truncatus through comprehensive transcriptomic analysis. Under controlled thermal stress conditions (38-42 °C), TtHsp70-1, TtHsp70-2, and TtHsp70-3 were significantly and consistently upregulated, suggesting their involvement in heat adaptation. Notably, exposure to sublethal doses (LC30) of widely used acaricides, propargite, abamectin, and fenpropathrin, specifically induced the expression of TtHsp70-1 and TtHsp70-2, indicating a unique and critical role in chemical adaptation. RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated silencing of these two genes using specific double-stranded RNA drastically impaired thermotolerance, increasing heat-induced mortality by 12.5-35.0 %. Moreover, knockdown significantly enhanced chemical susceptibility, elevating pesticide-induced mortality by 7.5-38.8 % across all tested acaricides. Collectively, these results demonstrate that TtHsp70-1 and TtHsp70-2 are crucial for T. truncatus to cope with heat and chemical stressors at the molecular level, providing important insights into how pests adapt to increasingly extreme climatic conditions.

Bacteria have a profound influence on life history and reproduction of numerous insects, while the associations between hosts and bacteria are substantially influenced by environmental pressures. Cold storage is crucial for extending the shelf life of insects used as tools for biological control, but mostly causes detrimental effects. In this study, we observed a great decrease in egg hatch rate of cold-stored Harmonia axyridis during the later oviposition periods. Furthermore, most eggs produced by their F1 offspring exhibited complete loss of hatchability. We hypothesized that long-term exposure to cold may greatly alter the bacterial community within the reproductive tracts of H. axyridis, which may be an important factor contributing to the loss of egg viability. Through sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene, we discovered considerable changes in the bacterial structure within the reproductive tracts of female cold-stored beetles (LCS_F) compared to non-stored beetles (Control_F), with a notable increase in unclassified_f_Enterobacteriaceae in LCS_F. Furthermore, in accordance with the change of egg hatchability, we observed a slight variation in the microbial community of eggs produced by cold-stored beetles in early (Egg_E) and later (Egg_L) oviposition periods as well as in eggs produced by their F1 offspring (Egg_F1). Functional predictions of the microbial communities revealed a significant decrease in the relative abundance of substance dependence pathway in LCS_F. Moreover, this pathway exhibited relatively lower abundance levels in both Egg_L and Egg_F1 compared to Egg_E. These findings validate that long-term cold storage can greatly modify the bacterial composition within H. axyridis, thereby expanding our understanding of the intricate bacteria-insect host interactions.

One of the successful strategies developed for studying the gene function of aphids is to silence aphid gene expression by plant-mediated RNA interference (RNAi). In this study, we analyzed the expression patterns and the biological functions of genes related to chitin metabolism ApCht7 and ApCht10 by using gene-specific plant-mediated RNAi in the green pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Ap). The RT-qPCR results demonstrated that the RNAi-mediated silencing of these ApChts suppressed the expression of most genes involved in the chitin degradation pathway, but enhanced the expressions of ApHK, ApGFAT, ApPGM and ApCHS, indicating that the RNAi of ApChts could affect the expression of genes related to chitin metabolism and regulate the chitin metabolism. Furthermore, it resulted in a decrease in aphid body weight of aphids, with mortality rates ranging from 3.3 to 26.1

With a generally warming global climate, the number of Tetranychus truncatus specimens in the Hexi region in China has been increasing. As ectotherms, the growth and development of T. truncatus are greatly affected by changes in environmental temperature. The effect of heatwaves on organisms depends on a delicate balance between damage and repair periods. Therefore, we simulated nine patterns of periodically recurring changes in the frequency of high-temperature days using an intraday gradual temperature change model to study and compare the effects on the development and reproduction of pyridaben-sensitive and -resistant strains of T. truncatus . The results showed that the influence of the frequency of high-temperature days on developmental stages, longevity and fecundity was different between the two strains. The egg and immature stages of the sensitive strain were all affected by hot days, whereas the adult stage was less affected by the frequency. The egg stage of the resistant strain was less affected; it was mainly affected in the immature and adult stages. Under the moderate condition of increasing the proportion of days at normal temperature, the longevity of the resistant strain gradually increased and reached a maximum at a 1:3 frequency, and then it decreased with the increase in high-temperature days. The longevity of the sensitive strain was less affected by frequency, and there was no significant difference between most treatment and control groups. In addition, both sensitive and resistant strains were able to complete growth and development under all nine frequencies of high-temperature days, but the reproductive rate was lower than it was at normal temperatures, indicating that both strains of T. truncatus adapted to high temperatures at the expense of reduced reproduction rates. This lays a key theoretical foundation for predicting the occurrence of agricultural pest populations under the background of climate warming and developing appropriate control strategies.

Cuticular proteins, in conjunction with chitin, compose the insect exoskeleton, and play a key role in the growth, development, and molting of insects. However, the specific functions of most cuticular protein genes in the growth, development, and reproductive processes of the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) remain unclear. In this study, we have identified six cuticular protein genes in the pea aphid, namely ApCP7, ApCP10, ApCP19, ApCP19.8-like, ApCP35 and ApCP62. We found that the expression levels of six genes were highly expressed during the adult stage, and except for ApCP10, which is highly expressed in the pea aphid cuticle, other genes were highly expressed in the ovaries. Subsequently, we observed that the survival rate and fecundity of pea aphid were significantly lower than those of the control group after silencing ApCP7 and ApCP62 through RNA interference. Furthermore, when ApCP7 transcript levels were reduced, aphid encountered difficulties in molting, were smaller in body size, and exhibited a darker body color. These results indicate that ApCP7 and ApCP62 are involved in the development and reproduction of pea aphid, and could be used as RNAi targets for controlling pea aphid.

Tetranychus truncatus (Acari: Tetranychidae) has caused serious economic losses on some crops (soybean, corn, and cotton) in China, and has developed resistance to most acaricides. Our laboratory study found that T. truncatus was resistant to pyridaben and also adapted to high temperature (34–40 °C). High temperature stress may cause arthropods to produce a large amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing oxidative damage. Antioxidant enzymes, as the main antioxidants, can reduce the damage caused by excessive ROS in arthropods. In order to study the adaptation mechanism of the pyridaben-resistant strain of T. truncatus to high temperature and the role of antioxidant enzyme genes under high temperature stress, four antioxidant enzyme genes, TtSOD, TtPOD3, TtPOD4, and TtGSTs2, were screened according to the transcriptome sequencing data of pyridaben-susceptible and -resistant strains in T. truncatus. Firstly, the phylogeny and structure analyses of these four genes were carried out. Then, real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) technology was used to analyze the gene expression patterns of antioxidant enzymes in two strains of T. truncatus at three different high temperature ranges (34 °C, 38 °C, and 42 °C). The results showed that the expression levels of four antioxidant enzyme genes of two strains of T. truncatus were induced by high temperature stress, and the expression levels of antioxidant enzyme genes were significantly different in each development state. The gene expression of antioxidant enzyme genes in resistant strains at the adult stage was significantly higher than that in susceptible strains. After the TtSOD and TtPOD4 genes of adult mites of the resistant strain were silenced by RNA interference (RNAi) technology, the mortality rate of mites with TtPOD4 gene silencing reached 41.11% after 96 h at 34 °C, which was significantly higher than that of the control and TtSOD gene silencing. It has been confirmed that the TtPOD4 gene plays a key role in the adaptation of pyridaben-resistant strain of T. truncatus to high temperature. It lays a theoretical foundation for revealing the thermal adaptation mechanism of T. truncatus.

BACKGROUND: Pollen is a common plant-derived food source for predatory ladybird beetles under field conditions, yet the potential for pollen to improve the quality of artificial diets remains largely unexplored. In this study, we developed three pollen diets by incorporating varying proportions of canola bee pollen (7.5%, 15.0% and 22.5% with 2.5%, 5.0%, and 7.5% of water, respectively) into a conventional diet. The feeding efficiency of Harmonia axyridis, an omnivorous predator, was evaluated and compared on three pollen diets, a conventional nonpollen diet and pea aphids. RESULTS: The larvae fed a medium or high pollen diet exhibited significantly higher survival in the 4(th) instar, pupa and adult stages than those fed a nonpollen diet. These larvae also developed into significantly heavier adults, and their survival rates in adulthood were comparable to those fed pea aphids. Specifically, we revealed the underlying mechanisms through which a high pollen diet enhances pupal development. Consumption of high pollen diet versus nonpollen diet resulted not only in a significant decrease in pupal glycogen content, but also an increase in adult lipid content. Both diet treatments induced similar changes in carbohydrate and glycogen content compared to the aphid diet while exhibiting different alterations in pupal protein content and adult lipid content. Furthermore, the transcriptome analysis revealed that the nutrient metabolism, immune response, and cuticle development pathways were predominantly enriched among the differentially expressed genes (DEGs). CONCLUSION: Canola bee pollen offers diverse advantages in terms of rearing H. axyridis larvae with an artificial diet, which will advance the development of effective diets for predaceous coccinellids. (c) 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Anoplophora glabripennis (Asian longhorned beetle) is a wood-boring pest that can inhabit a wide range of healthy deciduous host trees in native and non-native habitats. Lignocellulose degradation plays a major role in the acquisition of nutrients during the growth and development of A. glabripennis larvae. In this study, the lignocellulose degradation capacity of Fusarium solani , a fungal symbiont of A. glabripennis , was investigated in fermentation culture and in four host tree species. The impact of F. solani on larval growth and survival parameters was assessed. Fermentation culture demonstrated continuous and stable production of lignocellulolytic enzymes over the cultivation period. Furthermore, F. solani was able to degrade host tree lignocellulose, as shown by decreased soluble sugar and cellulose contents and an increase in protein content. No significant differences in larval survival were observed in larvae fed with or without F. solani. However, weight and head capsule width were higher in larvae fed on F. solani , and gut lignocellulose activities were elevated in fed larvae. Our results indicate a role for F. solani in the predigestion of lignocellulose during the colonization and parasitic stages of A. glabripennis larval development, and also the F. solani an important symbiotic partner to A. glabripennis , lowering barriers to colonization and development in a range of habitats.

The adaptability of insects to hosts has long been a focal point in the study of insect-plant interactions. The pea aphid (Acythosiphon pisum), a significant pest of numerous leguminous crops, not only inflicts direct economic losses but also disseminates various plant viruses. To understand how pea aphids adapt to diverse alfalfa varieties. We analyzed the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of pea aphids in distinct alfalfa varieties using transcriptome sequencing, and subsequently conducted functional validation of these genes. Comparative analysis between pea aphids feeding on susceptible and resistant strains revealed that DEGs in aphids feeding on resistant strains were primarily associated with transcriptional enrichment in the sugar, amino acid, protein, and lipid metabolism pathways. Fourteen DEGs related to adaptation of the pea aphid to alfalfa were chosen, including five carboxylesterases (CarE), four cytochrome P450s, three glutathione S-transferases, and two peroxidases (POD). RT-qPCR results indicated significant up-regulation of two carboxylesterase genes and two peroxidase genes after 24 h of feeding resistant alfalfa (Gannong 5, GN5) compared to the susceptible varieties (Hunter River, LRH), particularly highlighting the high expression levels of ApCarE4 and ApPOD3. Simultaneously, RNAi-induced knockdown of ApCarE4 and ApPOD3 led to a higher mortality of pea aphids in the alfalfa Hunter River. These results indicate that ApPOD3 and ApCarE4 are involved in the detoxification of metabolic functions in the adaptation of pea aphids to host switching. These findings contribute to the understanding of pea aphid adaptation to host plants and lay a foundation for further exploration of the physiological roles of carboxylesterase and peroxidase genes in pea aphids.

High performance liquid chromatography is widely used in various fields, such as food, medical, environmental, and biological areas. The stationary phase determines the chromatographic separation performance, including the resolution, sensitivity, analytical speed and precision. Recently, covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have been introduced to develop the stationary phases for liquid chromatography, which can provide hydrophobic, hydrophilic, π-π, electrostatic, halogen bond, hydrogen bond, and dipolar interactions, as well as molecular shape and chiral recognition selectivity. Further, the COF-based stationary phases have exhibited excellent separation performances for the different polar compounds, isomers, and enantiomers by several chromatographic modes, including reversed-phase, normal phase, and mixed-mode liquid chromatography. The advances of COF-based stationary phases are very important for analytical chemistry and separation science fields. So, the preparation and applications of COF-based stationary phases in liquid chromatography are summarized, and the current shortcomings and development perspectives are also described.