The genus Lycium is of considerable medicinal and economic importance and has a discontinuous intercontinental distribution. However, its evolutionary history remains obscured by morphological convergence, hybridization, and incomplete lineage sorting (ILS). Here, we conducted the first phylogenomic study of Lycium, integrating three independent genomic compartments, single-copy nuclear genes, mitochondrial genomes, and published plastid data to reconstruct its history and dissect the roles of incomplete lineage sorting, hybridization, and long-distance dispersal in its evolution. Both concatenation and coalescence methods based on nuclear genes yielded a congruent, well-resolved phylogeny, strongly supporting the monophyly of Lycium and recovering five major clades with a North American lineage as sisters to all the others. This phylogeny reveals significant conflicts with the traditional morphology. Our analyses clarify the primary cause of two distinct types of conflict. First, the pervasive tripartite (nuclear-plastid-mitochondrial) topological discordance is primarily linked to historical hybridization and introgression events, as demonstrated by strong gene-flow signals and detailed network models. In contrast, the discordance observed among gene trees appears to be predominantly influenced by incomplete lineage sorting, with some nodes exhibiting peaks exceeding 60%, indicative of rapid radiation during the Miocene epoch. Divergence dating and ancestral area reconstruction support a North American origin in the early Miocene (∼21.84 Ma), followed by sequential long-distance dispersal to South America across the Pacific, Africa, and Eurasia. Collectively, our results establish a process-based framework for Lycium’s complex evolutionary history, highlighting the interplay of rapid radiation, quantified ILS, modeled hybridization, and bird-mediated dispersal in shaping its intercontinental distribution.

Climate change poses an increasing threat to global biodiversity and food security. As a wild relative of cultivated apples, Malus baccata exhibits broad environmental adaptability and robust stress tolerance. However, its effective utilization in breeding is constrained by the absence of a complete reference genome and insufficient population-level genomic characterization. In this study, we assembled a haplotype-resolved, telomere-to-telomere genome for M. baccata, providing unprecedented resolution for a wild apple reference genome. Population genomic analyses revealed four distinct genetic clusters. Among these, the Hebei Group 2 harbors the highest genetic diversity and heterozygosity, alongside the lowest runs of homozygosity, suggesting a complex history of genetic admixture in this population. By integrating population genomics with genotype-environment association analyses, we identified a series of climate-associated single-nucleotide polymorphisms and structural variants. A substantial proportion of these adaptive variants is localized within the coding and regulatory regions of candidate genes, providing a genomic basis for their roles in environmental adaptation. Notably, DREB1A/D and NAC6 are associated with temperature seasonality and annual precipitation, respectively. Furthermore, future climate projections indicate that the Northeastern (NE) clusters face the highest risk of maladaptation, especially under high-emission scenarios. Collectively, these findings provide critical insights into the genetic basis of climatic adaptation in wild apples, establishing a solid foundation for the conservation of crop wild relatives and the breeding of climate-resilient cultivars.

The complete chloroplast genomes of Limonium increase our understanding of the genetic diversity and evolution of Limonium species and further aid in the exploration and utilization of Limonium plants.

BACKGROUND:Pitaya is an important tropical fruit highly favoured by consumers owing to its good and juicy characteristics. It contains a large amount of betacyanin, which is a natural food-colouring agent, in the peel and pulp. However, few studies have focused on the pitaya chloroplast (cp) genomes. RESULTS:To explore the genetic differences and phylogenetic relationships among the cp genomes of the six pitaya cultivars, we assembled, annotated, and performed a comparative genomic analysis. The cp genomes of the six cultivars exhibited a typical circular structure, ranging in length from 133,146 to 133,617 bp, with a GC content of 36.4%. All individual cp genomes were annotated with 123 genes, including 80 protein-coding genes, 38 tRNA genes, four rRNA genes, and one pseudogene (ycf68). Six mutated hotspot regions (trnF-GAA-rbcL, trnM-CAU-accD, rpl20-psbB, accD, rpl22, ycf1) were detected, which could be considered potential molecular markers for population genetics and molecular phylogeny studies. Phylogenetic analysis showed that pitaya cultivars clustered into a single branch in the phylogenetic tree of the Cactaceae family. Furthermore, the observed phylogenetic patterns suggest a complex genetic basis for colour variation among pitaya cultivars. CONCLUSIONS:The study findings expand our understanding of the cp genome of pitaya and the phylogenetic relationships among different cultivars. The genomic data obtained provide important information for the breeding and genetic improvement of pitaya.

Mango is the second most important tropical fruit crop. Due to ever-changing environmental conditions, world mango production is facing challenges such as diseases (anthracnose and mango malformation), physiological disorders (alternate bearing), low fruit setting, poor fruit quality, short shelf life, and climate change adaptation. Breeding efforts are hindered by the long juvenile period, outdated breeding system, and high heterozygosity, resulting in a slow pace of mango improvement programs. However, over the last decade, significant advances in high-quality genome assemblies, pangenomics, genetic mapping, multiomics data, and phenomics of large populations have accelerated crop genetics and breeding. Here, we summarize recent progress on the origin and domestication of mango, advancements in genome assemblies, development of genetic maps, functional and comparative genomics, evolutionary insights, and assessments of global phenotypic and genotypic diversity, including species at risk. We also discuss the integration of multiomics approaches with quantitative genetics for crop improvement. Furthermore, we highlight the key research gaps that limit breeding efficiency and propose integrative strategies combining pangenomics, multiomics, and machine learning with improved transformation protocols and multienvironment testing to accelerate the development of climate-resilient, high-quality mango cultivars.

Apples are one of the most popular and economically important fruits worldwide and have both nutritional and ornamental value. However, because of their complexity, studies on apple mitochondrial (mt) genomes have been limited. In this study, the mt genomes of Aksu Fuji and Ralls Janet cultivars were assembled, annotated, and analyzed based on a hybrid strategy using Illumina, and comprehensive comparisons of their structure, gene content, intercellular gene transfer, phylogeny, and RNA editing sites were performed. The mt genome length and gene structure of the two apple cultivars were identical (396 592 bp) and included 63 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 20 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, and 4 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes. There were 44 and 31 mitochondrial plastid fragments (MTPTs) identified between the mt and plastid genomes of the Ralls Janet and Aksu Fuji cultivars, accounting for 1.98 and 2.19

The black wolfberry(Lycium ruthenicum;2n=2x=24)is an important medicinal plant with ecological and economic value.Its fruits have numerous beneficial pharmacological activities,especially those of anthocyanins,polysaccharides,and alkaloids,and have high nutritional value.However,the lack of available genomic resources for this species has hindered research on its medicinal and evolutionary mechanisms.In this study,we developed the telomere-to-telomere(T2T)nearly gapless genome of L.ruthenicum(2.26 Gb)by integrating PacBio HiFi,Nanopore Ultra-Long,and Hi-C technologies.The assembled genome comprised 12 chromosomes with 37,149 protein-coding genes functionally anno-tated.Approximately 80％of the repetitive sequences were identified,of which long terminal repeats(LTRs)were the most abundant,accounting for 73.01％.The abundance of LTRs might be the main reason for the larger genome of this species compared to that of other Lycium species.The species-specific genes of L.ruthenicum were related to defense mechanisms,salt tolerance,drought resistance,and oxidative stress,further demonstrating their superior adaptability to arid environments.Based on the assembled genome and fruit transcriptome data,we further constructed an anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway and identified 19 candidate structural genes and seven transcription factors that regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis in the fruit developmental stage of L.ruthenicum,most of which were highly expressed at a later stage in fruit development.Furthermore,154 potential disease resistance-related nucleotide-binding genes have been identified in the L.ruthenicum genome.The whole-genome and proximal,dispersed,and tandem duplication genes in the L.ruthenicum genome enriched the number of genes involved in anthocyanin synthesis and resistance-related pathways.These results provide an important genetic basis for understanding genome evolution and biosynthesis of pharmacologically active com-ponents in the Lycium genus.

Most genomic studies start by mapping sequencing data to a reference genome. The quality of reference genome assembly, genetic relatedness to the studied population, and the mapping method employed directly impact variant calling accuracy and subsequent genomic analyses, introducing reference bias and resulting in erroneous conclusions. However, the impacts of reference bias have gained limited attention. This study compared population genomic analyses using four different reference genomes of mango (Mangifera indica), including the two haploid assemblies of haplotype-resolved telomere-to-telomere (T2T) genome assembly, a pangenome, and an older version of the reference genome available on NCBI. The choice of reference genome dramatically impacted the mapping efficiency and resulted in notable differences in calling the genetic variants, particularly structural variations (SVs). Phylogenetic analysis was more sensitive to the reference genome compared to genetic differentiation. Population genomic analyses of artificial selection in domestication and SV hotspot regions varied across reference genomes. Notably, the gene enrichment analyses showed significant differences in the top enriched biological processes depending on the reference genome used. Overall, the mango pangenome outperformed the other reference genomes across various metrics, followed by T2T reference genomes, as they captured greater diversity and effectively reduced reference bias. Our findings highlight the role of the mango pangenome in reducing reference bias and underscore the critical role of reference genome selection, suggesting that it is one of the most important factors in population genomic studies.

The mango is an important economic crop with a long history of cultivation. However, studies on the characteristics among chloroplast (cp) genomes and the phylogenetic relationships of different mango varieties are still limited. To fill this research gap, we assembled, annotated, and compared the cp genomes of 23 mango germplasms. The mango cp genome exhibited a typical quadripartite structure, ranging in length from 157,604 to 158,949 bp. Each sequence encoded 129 genes, including 84 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes, and 8 rRNA genes. Nucleotide diversity analysis identified three mutation hotspot regions, trnH-GUG-psbA, ycf4-cemA, and ndhF-rpl32, which could be used to develop chloroplast-specific markers. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that mango germplasm can be divided into four major clades, with wild and cultivated varieties forming independent clades. Interestingly, comparative chloroplast genomics and phylogenetics revealed a relatively low rate of genetic variation among cultivated mangoes. This phenomenon may be attributed to extensive interspecific hybridization and gene introgression events during mango domestication. This study provides valuable genomic resources for crop breeding and enhances our understanding of the genetic variation and phylogenetic relationships among different mango varieties.

AimLycium L. (Solanaceae), which is known for producing goji berries, is an important plant with both medicinal and edible uses. This genus is globally distributed in temperate and subtropical regions. However, a comprehensive phylogeny and evolutionary history of this plant group is lacking so far. This study was executed to produce novel insights into the phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history of this small but economically important genus.LocationNorth America, South America, Hawaii, Africa and Eurasia.TaxonLycium L. (Solanaceae).MethodsWe established a phylogenetic framework for Lycium based on complete plastome sequences and data from 80 protein-coding genes across 43 Lycium species using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. Furthermore, 14 species from the Solanaceae family were used as outgroups. Additionally, two Solanoideae fossils and one secondary calibration point were used to estimate divergence times and reveal the biographical history of these plants through ancestral area reconstruction.ResultsOur analysis revealed that six North American Lycium species were strongly supported as monophyletic with high support and were sister clades to the remainder of the genus. The remaining species from North America, South America and the Hawaiian Islands shared a common ancestor, whereas all species from Africa, Saharo-Arabia and Eurasia formed a distinct clade. Our results indicated that Lycium originated in North America during the Late Oligocene and then dispersed to Hawaii and South America, from there to Africa, and then further to Saharo-Arabia, with a more recent dispersal to Eurasia.Main ConclusionsOur plastid genome data confirmed that Lycium originated in North America and identified long-distance dispersal as the key to its global distribution. Genomic insights facilitate species identification and contribute to conservation efforts.

Enkianthus is a small genus of Ericaceae mostly in east Asia, most constituent species with important ornamental and ecological values. Due to limited sampling of Chinese species and neglect of the origin of polyploid species in previous studies, phylogenetic relationships within this genus remain elusive. Using six chloroplast DNA fragments (psbA-trnH, rpl32-trnL, trnL-trnF, rps16-trnQ, psbJ-petA and matK), nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (nrITS) and one single-copy nuclear gene (OG9899), we reconstructed the phylogenetic relationships of most Enkianthus species, with a special attempt to decipher the origin of polyploids within the genus. The phylogenetic trees excluding polyploid species indicated that the sections of Meisteria, Andromedina and Enkianthus were all monophyletic groups, with sect. Enkianthus first branching out. The position of E. tubulatus was in conflict between cpDNA and nuclear gene trees, indicating that this species could be of hybrid origin. After the inclusion of polyploid species, we found that members of sect. Enkiantella clustered either with sect. Meisteria or with sect. Andromedina in nuclear gene trees, suggesting this section might be derived from allopolyploidy. The close affinity of sect. Enkiantella with sect. Meisteria in cpDNA tree implies that the members of sect. Meisteria might be the maternal progenitor of sect. Enkiantella. In addition, the octoploid species E. campanulatus might be either an autopolyploid or an allopolyploid with one of its progenitors originating from sect. Meisteria. Our findings provide a robust phylogenetic framework for the evolutionary study and the utility of germplasm resources of Enkianthus. The results of this study will also be helpful for the breeding of Enkianthus cultivars.

The cultivated apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) is a cross-pollinated perennial fruit tree of great economic importance. Earlier versions of apple reference genomes were unphased, fragmented, and lacked comprehensive insights into the apple's highly heterozygous genome, which impeded advances in genetic studies and breeding programs. In this study, we assembled a haplotype-resolved telomere-to-telomere (T2T) reference genome for the diploid apple cultivar Golden Delicious. Subsequently, we constructed a pangenome based on 12 assemblies from wild and cultivated species to investigate the dynamic changes of functional genes. Our results revealed the gene gain and loss events during apple domestication. Compared with cultivated species, more gene families in wild species were significantly enriched in oxidative phosphorylation, pentose metabolic process, responses to salt, and abscisic acid biosynthesis process. Our analyses also demonstrated a higher prevalence of different types of resistance gene analogs (RGAs) in cultivars than their wild relatives, partially attributed to segmental and tandem duplication events in certain RGAs classes. Structural variations, mainly deletions and insertions, have affected the presence and absence of TIR-NB-ARC-LRR, NB-ARC-LRR, and CC-NB-ARC-LRR genes. Additionally, hybridization/introgression from wild species has also contributed to the expansion of resistance genes in domesticated apples. Our haplotype-resolved T2T genome and pangenome provide important resources for genetic studies of apples, emphasizing the need to study the evolutionary mechanisms of resistance genes in apple breeding.

Vernicia montana and V. fordii are economically important woody oil species in the Euphorbiaceae that have great industrial oil and ornamental greening properties, however, the wild resources of Vernicia trees have been reduced because of their habitat destruction. Considering the diverse economic and ecological importance of Vernicia species, it is important to collect more molecular data to determine the genetic differences between V. montana and V. fordii. We sequenced, assembled, and annotated the complete chloroplast (CP) genome of two tung trees based on the genome skimming approach. The whole CP genomes of V. montana and V. fordii were 163,518 bp and 161,495 bp in length, both including a pair of inverted repeats separated by a large single-copy and a small single-copy region. We detected a total number of 311 tandem repeats, 100 dispersed repeats, and 255 simple repeats from V. montana and V. fordii CP genomes. The mean value of nucleotide diversity between the two species was 0.0122, and the average Ka/Ks ratio across all coding genes was 0.3483. Comparative chloroplast genome analysis showed that the coding regions were more conserved than the non-coding regions. The phylogenetic relationships yielded by the complete genome sequences showed that V. montana was closely related to V. fordii and is considered as a sister group. We sequenced, assembled, annotated, and analyzed the CP genome of two tung trees, which will be useful in investigating the conservation genetics and potential breeding applications of this oil shrub.

Abstract Drought and salt stress are major constraints for agricultural survival and development. Suaeda salsa is one of the hot spots plants in the study of drought- and salt-tolerant with important soil improvement and ecological restoration roles. Therefore, it is significant to understand the effects of water shortage and salt stress on physiological and biochemical properties of plants. In the study, two different horizontal gradients were set up to measure the phenotype, physiological and biochemical characteristics of S. salsa under drought and salt stress. The results showed that drought and salt stress inhibited the growth of S. salsa. Different salt concentrations significantly increased the activities of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD). With increasing concentration of salt stress, malondialdehyde (MDA), soluble protein and soluble sugar contents showed an upward trend, while chlorophyll b and carotenoid contents first decreased, and then increased by 28.21% and 45.45% due to the accumulation of proline. As drought stress concentration increased, the POD activity first decreased and then increased, while soluble protein contents showed an opposite trend. Under severe drought, chlorophyll a/b and carotenoid contents decreased by 52.0%, 57.01%, and 20.00%, respectively. Our results indicated that drought and high salinity inhibited the growth, morphology, and most physiological and biochemical characteristics of S. salsa, while the activities of antioxidant enzymes, content of osmotic adjustment substances and photosynthetic pigments might be related to the accumulation of proline.

Drought and salinity are the main factors limiting agricultural production. Improving crop resistance to relieve land stress is a major challenge in agriculture. The salt-tolerant species Suaeda salsa is a typical indicator of saline soil. It has a strong drought tolerance and can be used as a model plant to study salt and drought tolerance in plants. In this study, transcriptome sequencing and bioinformatic analysis were performed to study gene expression changes in S. salsa under salt and drought stresses, and to screen out differentially expressed genes. The genetic changes were most abundant in cellular processes, metabolic processes, ion binding, signalling, post-translational modifications, protein conversion, and molecular chaperones, suggesting that the above methods may play a significant role in the response of S. salsa to external salt and drought stress. Enrichment analysis showed that carbohydrate metabolic processes, oxidoreductase activity, transmembrane transport, kinase activity, cellular protein modification processes, and ion-binding pathways are involved in the stress response of S. salsa.

刺木蓼(Atraphaxis spinosa)、额河木蓼(A.jrtyschensis)和细枝木蓼(A.decipiens)是同域分布在我国新疆北部的3种木蓼属物种.通过二代高通量测序,对叶绿体基因组进行组装和注释,比较3个物种的叶绿体基因组差异并进行系统发育分析.结果表明,木蓼属3个物种的叶绿体全基因组大小为164 106-164 216 bp,与其它绿色植物类似,由1个大单拷贝区(LSC)、1个小单拷贝区(SSC)及介于二者之间的2个反向重复区(IRa/IRb)组成.在刺木蓼、额河木蓼和细枝木蓼中检测到48-49个串联重复序列及59-63个简单重复序列(SSR).3个物种的核苷酸多样性平均值为0.000 96,Ka/Ks平均值为0.030 3,遗传距离平均值为0.001 0.通过对3个物种的叶绿体基因组进行比较,发现编码区比非编码区更保守.系统发育分析结果显示3个物种的亲缘关系较近.该研究基于叶绿体基因组对木蓼属物种的亲缘关系进行分析,揭示了3个同域分布的物种之间的亲缘关系以及木蓼属在蓼科中的系统位置.研究结果可为木蓼属的分类学、系统学和生物地理学研究提供参考.

石栗(Aleurites moluccana)是大戟科石栗属的常绿阔叶乔木,具有能源、药用和观赏价值.为填补石栗叶绿体基因组研究的空白,通过二代高通量全基因组测序,组装和注释了石栗叶绿体基因组,并进行基因组特征和系统发育分析.结果显示,石栗叶绿体基因组为典型的四段式结构,总长度为163 298 bp,LSC、SSC及IR的长度分别为91 301、18 501和26 748 bp.石栗叶绿体基因组共有131个基因,包括8个rRNA基因,37个tRNA基因,86个蛋白质编码基因.研究发现145个SSR位点,检测到重复单元有单核苷酸、二核苷酸、三核苷酸和四核苷酸,数目分别为80、53、10和2个.共线性分析结果表明,石栗叶绿体基因组存在基因倒位和重排现象.利用最大似然法和贝叶斯法构建了系统发育树,显示石栗与油桐(Vemicia fordii)和东京桐(Deutzianthus tonkinensis)亲缘关系较近,并形成姐妹群.利用化石时间进行定年分析,表明石栗属、油桐属和东京桐属的分化时间为25.94 Ma(95％HPD:24.71-63.32 Ma).该研究丰富了石栗基因组信息,可为石栗种质资源的开发利用提供基础遗传数据,同时为石栗属物种鉴定及系统发育研究提供参考.

为明确长爪鼩鼱(Sorex unguiculatus)和细鼩鼱(Sorex gracillimus)的种群系统地理关系以及亚种分化,本文测定了我国东北地区长爪鼩鼱 11个样本和细鼩鼱 17个样本的Cyt b基因序列,并结合GenBank下载32个长爪鼩鼱和22个细鼩鼱的Cytb基因序列进行整合分析.两个物种不同地理种群表现出不同的地理分化格局:长爪鼩鼱系统进化树结果显示,其分子系统关系与地理分布无相关性;细鼩鼱系统进化树结果显示,中国东北的样本聚为一个独立的进化支,俄罗斯的样本和日本北海道的样本聚为一个进化支.中介网络分析也观察到相似分化格局.中性检验支持长爪鼩鼱在近期可能发生过种群扩张,而细鼩鼱未经历过数量急剧扩张.上述结果支持长爪鼩鼯无亚种分化,细鼩鼱可能包含两个地理亚种,分别对应我国东北的地理种群以及俄罗斯远东(马加丹南部到滨海边疆区,包括萨哈林岛)和日本北海道的地理种群.

[Objectives]In order to clarify taxonomy and molecular phylogenetics of Micromys in China,this study analyzed morphological and molecular data of 9 specimens of M.minutus,22 specimens of M.erythrotis,and 19 pending specimens of Micromys collected between 2018 and 2021.[Methods]The morphological characteristics of specimens and skulls were described and measured.Molecular phylogenetic studies include the calculation of genetic distance(the Kimura 2-parameter model)and the construction of phylogenetic trees(maximum likelihood,ML).[Results]The morphological characteristics of pending specimens of Micromys showed differences from M.minutus and M.erythrotis.The back of the body is black-brown(Fig.1).The base of the hair on the abdomen is gray(Fig.1).The tip of the hair is gray-white(Fig.1).The color of the hair on the sides of the body is clearly differentiated(Fig.1),the dorsal surface of the tail is dark brown(Fig.1)and the ventral surface of the tail is gray-brown(Fig.1).Tail length is longer than 120％of head and body length(Table 2).The zygomatic arch is clearly curved inward(Fig.2).Greatest length of the skull and Condyloincisive length(18.59±0.48 mm and 17.43±0.48 mm)is longer(Table 2).Palatal length(9.35±0.11 mm)is longer(Table 2).Braincase height(7.43±0.06 mm)is higher(Table 2).The genetic distances between pending specimens of Micromys and M.minutus and M.erythrotis are 0.115 and 0.136,which are near the genetic distance(0.126)between M.minutus and M.erythrotis.Based on the complete sequence of the Cyt b of mtDNA and nuclear gene sequences(IRBP1,RAG1,and RAG2),two phylogenetic trees were constructed.Samples were clustered into 3 clades in both phylogenetic trees(M.minutus clade,M.erythrotis clade,and pending specimens of Micromys clade)with high confidence(Fig.4,5).[Conclusion]The results of morphological analyses and the molecular phylogenetics supported that the pending specimens of Micromys are an independent species,corresponding to M.m.pygmaeus reported in previous studies.Based on the locality,genetic distance,and morphological differentiation,it is suggested that the M.m.pygmaeus should be elevated to a species and named M.pygmaeus comb.nov..The samples of M.minutus in phylogenetic tree based on the Cyt b of mtDNA were clustered into 6 lineages:Japanese and Korean lineage,European lineage,Novosibirsk Russia lineage,Northeast China and Far East Russia lineage,Anhui China lineage,and Taiwan China lineage.

As an endangered species listed in the Class Ⅱ protected species of the national government of China, wapiti（Cervus canadensis xanthopygus） in northeast China has been experiencing population contraction and gene flow block between populations in recent years, and it is hard to find its traces in many areas. It is an urgent need to further evaluate the genetic changes of the population, especially the genetic diversity and inbreeding decline, so as to enhance the pertinence of conservation and management. In this study, 409 suspected fecal samples of wapiti were collected from six key research areas in Daxing’an, Xiaoxing’an, and Changbai Mountains. Firstly, species identification was carried out based on mtDNA Cyt b gene sequencing technology, and the positive samples were supplied for further individual identification by microsatellite technology. Finally, 172 wapiti individuals were identified from the 409 fecal samples. The results showed that there were 14 variation sites and 11 haplotypes in the Cyt b sequence of wapiti. In the populations, the haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity of Cyt b gene were 0. 849（0. 105 – 0. 732） and 0. 678%（0. 099% – 0. 775%）,respectively. Based on 10 microsatellite loci, we found that the mean number of alleles was 5. 7（5. 2 – 7. 2）, the effective number of alleles was 3. 3（2. 5 – 4. 1）, the average observed heterozygosity was 0. 687（0. 644 – 0. 725）, the average expected heterozygosity was 0. 619（0. 564 – 0. 689）, and the inbreeding coefficient was-0. 113（-0. 160 to-0. 037）in the populations. The results showed that the genetic diversity was at a medium level for populations, among which the Shuanghe and Tieli populations were the highest, followed by the Gaogestai and Huangnihe populations, and the Fangzheng and Muling populations were the lowest. The population decline and isolation of the distribution area affected the genetic diversity pattern of the six local populations. The high proportion of rare haplotypes and alleles suggested a risk of decreasing genetic diversity in the future. The Gaogestai and Huangnihe populations displayed significant differences in haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity, which may be the result of rapid growth after the population decline. The negative inbreeding coefficients of populations showed no risk of inbreeding. It is suggested that individuals with rare haplotypes and alleles should be key targets in monitoring and protection. Additionally, promoting exchanges of individuals with nearby populations and releasing artificially bred populations in the field at the appropriate time may improve the gene exchange between individuals and accelerate population restoration.