This study investigates whether a Set-for-Variability (SfV) reading intervention improves irregular word reading and induces neural changes in the N400, specifically earlier onset latency and increased negative amplitude in incongruent conditions, among children with persistent word reading difficulties (RD). A pre-registered randomised control trial (RCT) was conducted with 30 children (average age: 9 years). Over 10 weeks, participants completed a 15-h online reading program. The SfV group focused on phoneme variation in decoding both regular and exception words, while the Current Best Practices (CBP) group received synthetic phonics and sight word instruction. Pre- and post-test reading ability and N400 event-related potentials (ERPs) were collected. Post-test results revealed that the SfV group achieved greater gains than the CBP group in irregular word reading, oral SfV, and increased N400 amplitude in the incongruent condition, indicating improved lexical-semantic processing. These behavioural and neural gains suggest that the SfV intervention improved children's ability to resolve print-sound inconsistencies and supported more efficient lexical access.

Background: Social development in autistic persons, for whom difficulties in social functioning are the basis of a diagnosis, has been evaluated in various ways. For example, behavioral paradigms used to assess biological motion (BM) provide insight into dynamic social information processing, whereas parent-report questionnaires are used to assess broader patterns of social functioning ability in everyday contexts. We assessed score concordance on these two disparate measurements of social development among autistic and non-autistic persons. We further assessed this relationship in relation to mental age (MA). Methods: The participants included 29 autistic (five females, 24 males; mean age = 12.47 years, mean MA = 10.90 years) and 29 non-autistic (eight females, 21 males; mean age = 10.40 years, mean MA = 11.21 years) participants. These groups were subdivided into high and low MA groups based on the median MA (10.57 years). A BM task was used to assess social perceptual processing via accuracy in identifying the walking direction of a point-light figure with increasing distractor dots. Social functioning was evaluated with the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS-2) and MA was assessed with the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. Results: The autistic group showed significantly higher SRS-2 scores than the non-autistic group (p < .001), reflecting greater social difficulties. However, the groups did not differ significantly in BM performance (p = .64). BM and SRS-2 scores were significantly correlated when accounting for the diagnostic group (p = .048). Further stratified by mental age group, BM was significantly associated with the SRS-2 in the higher MA group (p = .046) but not in the lower MA group (p > .50). Conclusion: These findings indicate that scores on perceptual and questionnaire-based measures of social functioning are linked at higher MA, indicating a role for cognition in the coherence of disparate aspects of social development.

Background: The visual processing of autistic people has been connected to a tendency to process local, or detailed, information more readily than the overall global, or configural, structure of visual information. This style has been highlighted in evidence of unique and efficient attention processing on certain tasks, such as the detection of changes. However, research on change detection in autism is mixed, with discrepancies seemingly attributed to the diversity of stimuli and the specific components of perception and attention involved in the task. Purpose: We assessed rudimentary differences in change detection between autistic and nonautistic participants using a simple geometric task manipulating local/global processing and foreground/background attention. Method: Thirty-two autistic adolescents and adults (Mage = 20.21, SD = 6.10) and 32 mental-age matched non-autistic adolescents and adults (Mage = 19.79, SD = 4.92) completed a change-detection task involving displays of rectangles presented in configural (global) and nonconfigural (local) arrangements. The participants were asked to indicate whether changes to the colours of these displays occurred. Results: Three mixed-effect analyses of variance comparing accuracy, detection sensitivity, and response bias revealed a similar pattern of visual prioritization for both groups, with more accurate, sensitive and less biased change detection for foreground changes, especially nonconfigural ones. While accuracy levels were similar across groups, non-configural changes produced greater detection sensitivity for non-autistic than autistic participants. Conclusion: The findings reflect similar attentional patterns between autistic and non-autistic adolescents and young adults in change detection, even when issues of both configural/nonconfigural arrangement and foreground/background elements were considered.

Restricted and repetitive behaviours and interests (RRBIs) are common and integral to the everyday living of autistic persons. While RRBIs are often seen as negative behaviours to be subdued, they may serve regulatory roles that are central to an autistic way of being. Moreover, RRBIs are often present in early childhood and are associated with developmental benefits. Therefore, the continued presence of RRBIs among autistic persons beyond early childhood suggests that RRBIs may serve adaptive functions. To inform and improve clinical decision-making and gain a deeper understanding of the adaptive roles of RRBIs, a scoping review methodology was used to identify the key functions of RRBIs in autism. Our results resulted in 21 studies from the PsycINFO and Medline databases among the 3162 studies on RRBIs published between 2010 and 2023 retrieved. Four themes of functions were identified and mapped onto the subdomains of RRBIs. Specifically, results indicated that RRBIs (i) help autistic persons regulate sensory experiences, (ii) cope with feelings of anxiety, (iii) introduce certainty to their environment, and (iv) make sense of their world. This paper highlights the constructive characteristics of RRBIs and presents an alternative perspective to understand them and help inform decisions about whether and how RRBIs should be managed. Future research should focus on gathering qualitative insights into RRBIs from the perspectives of autistic persons and developing nuanced approaches to managing RRBIs by considering their functions.

The N400 event-related potential (ERP), a marker of lexical-semantic processing, can assess the neural basis of reading difficulties. This study examines 1) semantic processes in typically developing (TD) children and children with reading disabilities (RD) using N400 and Set-for-Variability (SfV) profiles and 2) correlations between N400 and SfV. Fifty-one children read congruent and incongruent sentences during EEG. Results showed RD children lacked an N400 effect and had delayed SfV. A negative correlation between SfV and N400 latency in the RD group indicated distinct semantic processing delays in these children.

There is a significant overlap in symptomology between individuals with deficits in attention and learning, which is explained by the co-dependent dynamic between the two cognitive constructs. Within this dynamic, attentional resources are allocated to salient stimuli while learning mech-anisms distinguish relevant from irrelevant information. Moreover, individuals with deficits in higher-order cognition (i.e., intelligence) can demonstrate difficulties in attention and learning. The Multiple Object-Tracking (MOT) task is a sensitive and versatile measure of attention that has characterized individual differences in attention as a function of higher-order cognition. Exploiting the traditional MOT task's ability to characterize the allocation of attentional resources to task demands, the current study compared learning exhibited on an attention-based task across neurodevelopmental conditions defined by deficits in attention (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; ADHD), learning (specific learning disorder; SLD), and intelligence (intellectual devel-opmental disorder; IDD). Children and adolescents (N = 101) completed 15 sessions on a Multiple Object-Tracking (MOT) task where performance trajectories were analyzed using latent growth curve modeling and conditioned by the presence of ADHD, SLD, or IDD while controlling for performance on a separate measure of attention, age, and sex. The sample, characterized by below-average IQ and problematic levels of attention, exhibited an effect of learning on MOT. However, individuals with an IDD diagnosis demonstrated decreased baseline MOT capability while ADHD and SLD profiles exhibited decreased slopes, relative to other neurodevelopmental conditions. Taken together, the results demonstrate distinct linear performance trajectories be-tween neurodevelopmental conditions defined by deficits in attention, learning, and intelligence. The current study provides additional evidence to repurpose the traditional MOT task as a descriptor of attention and discusses alternative uses for the paradigm. Overall, these results suggest an eclectic approach that considers attention, learning, and higher-order cognition when diagnosing ADHD, SLD, or IDD.

The Multiple Object-Tracking task first debuted in the cognitive sciences 35 years ago. Since then, research has sourced this paradigm to depict the phenomena of tracking multiple items simultaneously by manipulating factors that stress the limits of visual perception. The current presentation outlines and proposes an alternative use for the traditional measure. Here, we test the accuracy of the evolved and enhanced 3D-MOT paradigm to test the reliability in repeated assessment as well as the predictive validity of the task on clinically validated measures of attention and higher-order cognitive capability, such as intelligence. Additionally, this work aims to characterize individual difference factors in attention resource capacity via 3D-MOT performance. Participants (N = 400) between the ages of 6 to 30 years of age, and individuals with and without a neurodevelopmental condition (e.g., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, intellectual disability) were administered the MOT paradigm. Performance on a separate, clinically validated measure of attention was collected using the Conners Continuous Performance task – 3rd edition (CPT-3), and similarly, IQ was measured using the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence – 2nd Edition. A subset of the sample (n = 120) were assessed on the 3D-MOT paradigm for a second time on a separate day. The results demonstrate a robust relationship between time 1 and time 2 of 3D-MOT performance across age, for neurotypical and neurodivergent populations. Furthermore, 3D-MOT capability explained a significant proportion of the variance in CPT-3 and IQ, particularly at higher levels of attentional load. While the indication of a neurodevelopmental condition was associated with decreased tracking capability, this difference was better accounted for by IQ. Overall, the findings have implications for the alternative use of 3D-MOT as a characterization of attention resource capacity, which is accurate, appropriate, and accessible for a neurodiverse population.

Reading comprehension is a complex ability relying on multiple cognitive and language processes. For multilingual children, these processes may be influenced by their daily language experiences. This study examined the relationship between multilingual experience, working memory and attention ability, and component skills of reading in children and adolescents with exposure to English and other language(s) at home and school. One hundred and thirty-three multilingual children (n= 68, ages 6-10 years) and adolescents (n= 65, ages 12-15) completed an online study assessing decoding, language comprehension, reading comprehension, and working memory ability. Parents completed questionnaires that examined language experiences across the social contexts of home, community, and school in addition to questions pertaining to behavioural attention of their child. Our results demonstrated that reading comprehension was predicted by decoding and language comprehension, supporting the simple view of reading (SVR; Hoover & Gough, 1990). The model was more robust in children, explaining 84% of the variance in reading comprehension compared to 45% in adolescents.Furthermore, working memory ability uniquely predicted reading comprehension in children only. Finally, the relationship between decoding and reading comprehension was moderated by home language experience in adolescents, but not in children. Our findings highlight the importance of considering developmental stages when assessing the relationship between language and cognitive abilities in multilingual and multiliterate children and adolescents. Theoretical and practical implications of how domain-general cognitive abilities contribute to components of reading within the context of SVR are discussed.

Children develop their language capacities and executive functions (EF) throughout their school-aged years. Research has shown that bilingual children show different patterns of EF performance when compared to their monolingual counterparts. However, it is less clear how variations in children’s multilingual experiences associate with variation in EF performance. The current study examined the variability of multilingual experience across the contexts of home and school and how it relates to EF. Sixty-seven children and adolescents from a multilingual community completed EF tasks that assessed their attention and monitoring. Given the sociolinguistic landscape of a multilingual community, all participants reported having exposure to at least a second language, and their multilingual experience was examined on a continuum across different contexts. Age was positively associated with both attention and monitoring. In addition, the degree of dynamic multilingual experience contributed to performance on monitoring. Our study shows that in children and adolescents, multilingual experience across the contexts of home and school accounted for additional variation in EF beyond chronological age.

The extant literature aimed at characterizing attentional capability in autistics has presented inconsistent findings. This inconsistency and uncertainty may be the product of different theoretical and methodological approaches used to define attention in autism. In the current study, we investigate whether the allocation of attentional resources to task demands, and attention resource capacity, differs between autistics with no comorbid attention-deficit diagnosis (n = 55) and age-matched neurotypicals (n = 55). We compared differences in capacity and the allocation of resources by manipulating attentional load in a Multiple Object-Tracking (MOT) task, a robust, versatile, and ecological measure of selective, sustained, and distributed attention. While autistics demonstrated lower MOT performance, this difference disappeared when we accounted for fluid reasoning intelligence. Additionally, the similarity in the trend of MOT performance at increasing levels of attentional load between autistics and neurotypicals suggests no differences in the allocation of attentional resources to task demands. Taken together, our study suggests that higher-order cognitive abilities, such as intelligence, should be considered when characterizing attention across the autistic population in research. Similarly, our findings highlight the importance of considering cognitive competence when assessing attentional capabilities in autistic individuals, which could have significant implications for clinical diagnosis, treatment, and support.

Learning to read marks an important milestone in children. Extensive research with monolingual and bilingual children has demonstrated that language comprehension (LC) forms fundamental building blocks for reading comprehension (RC). However, mixed findings are reported among studies that compare readings skills in children with and without diverse language experiences. Depending on how researchers operationalize the construct of LC and RC, studies use different standardized tests or assessments to assess reading skills in children, which may lead to different findings across studies. The current review systematically examined tests of LC and RC that empirical studies have used to assess bilingual children who speak English as their second language. Out of an initial sample of 374 studies, 25 were eligible for inclusion. We extracted LC and RC assessments from the studies and documented task- and administration-related factors. Moreover, participant characteristics, definition of LC as described by authors, and findings related to the relationship between LC and RC were examined for each study. Our results demonstrated variability in the measures and definitions used to assess and describe LC and RC, potentially explaining the mixed findings in the literature. We underscore the importance of considering the multidimensional nature of LC and the need to further explore how different administrative and task characteristics of LC tests relate to RC. Furthermore, this review provides researchers and practitioners with an original and extensive survey of the literature on how LC and RC were assessed among bilingual children. Lastly, we highlight limitations in the current literature and discuss practical implications in the field of school psychology in supporting children with diverse language experiences.

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess whether (i) significant differences exist in the N400 response to lexico-semantic tasks between typically developing (TD) readers and readers with dyslexia, and (ii) whether these differences are moderated by the modality of task presentation (visual vs. auditory), the type of task, age, or opaque orthography (shallow and transparent alphabets vs Chinese morpho-syllabary). Twenty studies were included in the meta-analysis, and the analysis did not demonstrate strong evidence of publication bias. An overall effect size of Hedge's g = 0.66, p < .001, was found between typically developing readers and readers with dyslexia. All moderators were found to be significant; larger effects were associated with visual modality (g = 0.692, p < .001), semantically incongruent sentence tasks (g = 0.948, p < .001), pseudowords/characters tasks (g = 0.971, p < .001), and orthography [Chinese (g = 1.015, p < .001) vs. alphabets (g = 0.539, p < .001)]. Analysis of reaction time showed Hedge's g = 1.613, p < .001. Results suggest that the N400 reliably differentiated between typically developing readers and readers with dyslexia. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

The multiple object tracking (MOT) (Pylyshyn & Storm, 1988) and biological motion (Johansson, 1973) tasks are both used to assess the perception of and attention to motion. These abilities are essential to the dynamic real-world task of identifying and monitoring multiple moving stimuli in the environment. We examined cross-sectionally the developmental changes in dynamic visual attention using 3D versions of both the MOT task and a masked direction discrimination biological motion task among 42 children and adolescents aged 6–14 years. The concurrent examination of these two tasks also allowed for an initial assessment of the pattern of task performance improvements with age. Performance on both tasks was found to improve with age and the relationship between the two tasks did not differ as a function of age, suggesting that biological motion and MOT attentional abilities improve similarly across age.