The retrospective analysis of multivariate and high-dimensional processes in Phase I has garnered increasing attention in the field of industrial quality control. In such complex Phase I settings, where prior information about the underlying process distribution is often scarce, nonparametric methods are particularly valuable. However, research on nonparametric multivariate Phase I analysis remains relatively limited, with most existing studies concentrating on monitoring only a single feature of the underlying distribution. Principal Component Analysis (PCA), a fundamental technique for dimensionality reduction and feature extraction, has been widely adopted in nonparametric Phase II monitoring; however, its potential for Phase I analysis is not yet fully exploited. To address this gap, this paper introduces several novel Phase I schemes that integrate PCA with effective univariate Phase I procedures through different integration strategies. These schemes enable simultaneous monitoring of both location and scale parameters for any unknown multivariate distribution. Extensive Monte Carlo simulation studies demonstrate that the proposed schemes exhibit robust in-control (IC) performance. The results also reveal that some of the proposed schemes outperform others in anomaly detection, particularly in scenarios where out-of-control observations are attributed to shifts in a small subset of variables, as measured by overall performance metrics. The proposed schemes are beneficial for establishing reference sample and developing an IC model for subsequent Phase II monitoring. Two case studies using real-world data are presented to illustrate the implementation and interpretation of the proposed schemes.

Nano urea (NU) is a nano-enabled nitrogen fertilizer developed to improve nutrient use efficiency and crop productivity; however, its high surface reactivity raises the possibility of being a potential carrier for coexisting contaminants. Such behaviour of NU remains poorly understood in agricultural systems, particularly in soils contaminated with emerging pollutants such as tetracycline (TC), a widely used veterinary antibiotic. This study investigated the carrier effect of NU on TC and its influence on contaminant uptake and phytotoxicity in V. radiata, using bulk urea (BU) as a conventional control. Pristine TC exposure adversely affected plant physiological performance and metabolic responses, and these effects were further intensified under NU+TC co-exposure compared with BU+TC treatment. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis confirmed NU+TC interaction, and Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis revealed strong adsorption of TC toward NU, supporting its carrier potential. Furthermore, LC-MS analysis showed that NU+TC increased TC uptake by ∼22.7 mg/kg in roots and ∼5.7 mg/kg in shoots relative to pristine TC, confirming enhanced bioavailability in plants. This enhanced TC bioavailability induced oxidative stress, with NU+TC co-exposure amplifying ROS generation by ∼18% relative to pristine TC, leading to impaired metabolic responses and reduced nutrient uptake, whereas BU+TC caused no significant effect. Overall, the findings demonstrated that NU acts as a carrier for TC, promoting its accumulation in plants and intensifying antibiotic-induced phytotoxicity. These results highlight an environmental and human risk associated with nano fertilizer application and the need to evaluate interactions with coexisting contaminants in agricultural systems.

The increasing occurrence of graphene family nanomaterials (GFNs) such as graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and graphene, along with the widespread flame retardant tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), poses a growing threat to marine ecosystems. Both types of contaminants are known to induce toxicity in algae primarily through oxidative stress, membrane impairment, and photosynthetic disruption. This study provides the first systematic evidence of EPS-mediated detoxification of GFNs, TBBPA, and their combinations in the marine alga Chlorella sp. over both short-term (72 h) and long-term (360 h) exposures. EPS were added only once at the beginning, demonstrating their ability to provide sustained protection in a batch culture system. Detoxification was evident through reduced growth inhibition, significant suppression of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation (MDA), stabilisation of photosynthetic efficiency, and normalisation of biochemical responses, including proteins, carbohydrates, and antioxidant enzyme activities. UPLC-based uptake studies further confirmed that EPS reduced cellular accumulation of TBBPA, indicating a barrier or binding effect that limited bioavailability of TBBPA. Supporting analyses, including zeta potential, wettability, UPLC analysis, and 3D-EEM, revealed that EPS modulated surface interactions and minimised direct contaminant-cell contact. Clustered heatmap, correlation analysis, and PCA also showed the correlation. Among the GFN treatment groups, rGO revealed the highest toxicity, although in the presence of TBBPA and EPS, the toxicity was higher in the presence of GO. Ecological risk assessment highlighted the broader environmental relevance of these findings. Overall, this work establishes EPS as natural and effective detoxification agents capable of mitigating the long-term toxic impacts of emerging contaminants, thereby emphasising their potential as a sustainable ecological defense mechanism in aquatic systems.

Cadmium (Cd) adversely affects plant growth, necessitating the development of effective strategies to mitigate its toxicity for sustainable agriculture. This study evaluates the effectiveness of zinc oxide (ZnO) quantum dots (QDs), nanoparticles (NPs), and bulk particles (BPs) in promoting the growth of Allium sativum L. and alleviating Cd stress. The synthesised ZnO particles were characterised using FE-SEM, FTIR, XRD, Raman and fluorescence spectroscopy to confirm their structural and optical properties. Treatment with ZnO particles significantly improved overall growth and photosynthetic parameters, and reduced Cd bioaccumulation and oxidative stress. QDs demonstrated the highest efficacy compared to NPs and BPs. Correlations among the various physiological and biochemical parameters were established through mathematical modelling, encompassing clustered heatmap analysis, the Pearson correlation mapping, and principal component analysis. Additionally, the environmental risk quotient (RQ) assessment of Cd indicated an enhanced ecological safety following the incorporation of ZnO particles. The findings clearly demonstrate that the size of the particles has a significant impact on the efficacy of ZnO. In summary, this research underscores the crucial role of ZnO particle dimensions in promoting plant growth and mitigating Cd toxicity. Furthermore, it emphasises the promise of ZnO QDs as a viable nanoscale strategy for sustainable agricultural management.

The COVID-19 pandemic poses an enormous threat to human civilisation and instigates 5 widespread public concern. Frontline health workers extensively use Personal Protective 6 Equipment (PPE), particularly disposable face masks,...

Microplastics have become a pressing global environmental issue; however, their behavior and impacts in terrestrial environments, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, remain inadequately explored. Addressing this gap, the present study investigates road dust as a significant carrier of microplastic pollution in Jaipur, a semi-arid city in India. It evaluates the influence of climatic factors on microplastic distribution, providing new insights into their transport and accumulation dynamics. A total of 60 road dust samples were collected from diverse land-use areas, including industrial, commercial, residential, and highway zones across the city. After organic matter digestion and density separation, samples were quantified for microplastic using Nile Red fluorescence microscopy and characterized through Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDS). The findings revealed an average microplastic abundance ranging from 362.07 ± 84.48 to 213.47 ± 74.98 particles per 100 g of road dust, with most particles measuring under 300 μm. Fibers emerged as the most dominant shape, while the most commonly detected polymers were polyethylene (29

The unprecedented and widespread use of disposable face masks and their improper disposal poses a significant risk of escalating the already alarming problem of plastic pollution. This study presents a comparative analysis of the leachates from surgical masks, focusing on the differential impacts of microplastic fibres, organic compounds, and metal ions on two aquatic organisms: the microalga Chlorella variabilis and the crustacean Artemia salina. The facemasks were kept in water under stirring conditions for various time points (24, 48, 72, 96, 120, and 144 h), and the mask leachate (concentrations: 1.48 × 104 ± 0.04, 1.64 × 104 ± 0.04, 1.90 × 104 ± 0.06, 2.42 × 104 ± 0.29, 4.32 × 104 ± 0.19, and 4.87 × 104 ± 0.16 particles mL−1) was obtained. Experimental results indicated that disposable surgical masks leach out polypropylene microplastic fibres, alongside detectable levels of organic compounds (e.g., phthalates) and trace metals (e.g., Cu, Ni, Zn). When these microplastic rich-leachates came into contact with algae, it resulted in reduced cell viability, elevated levels of oxidative stress, and increased activity of antioxidant enzymes. A. salina exhibited increased mortality rates upon exposure to the leachates from the mask. Organic and heavy metal leachates induced minor biochemical stress responses. Moreover, our study also observed the entanglement and accumulation of mask microplastic fibers on the surface and in the digestive tract of A. salina, resulting in an increased mortality rate for the organism. This comparative study highlights the multifaceted toxicity of face mask leachates and underscores the distinctive threat posed by microplastic fibres, which exert both chemical and physical stress. Our investigation validates that the leachates from disposable surgical face masks present a significant risk to marine organisms, with subsequent consequences that would detrimentally impact aquatic ecosystems.

Disposable face masks (DFMs), predominantly made of polypropylene, have been widely used during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, raising concerns about their environmental toxicity. This study examined the phytotoxic effects of DFMs subjected to ultraviolet (UV) irradiation to simulate solar exposure, with dark conditions serving as controls. Leachates were extracted by immersing the samples in deionized water and tested on Vigna radiata (mung bean) to evaluate physiological and biochemical responses, including root length, vigour index, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and antioxidant enzyme levels. UV-weathered DFM leachates (UV ML) exhibited a time-dependent increase in toxicity, reaching 34 %, while non-weathered leachates (non-UV ML) showed no adverse effects. Subsequent analyses focused on UV ML and their interaction with tetracycline (TET), a persistent antibiotic in agricultural soils. Material characterisation using FT-IR, Raman spectroscopy, and FE-SEM revealed extensive polymer degradation and microfiber fragmentation, and the leachate with microfiber sizes ranging from 10 μm to 3 mm was observed using an optical microscope. LC-MS confirmed a 26 % adsorption of TET onto UV ML and identified diverse phthalate groups, while ICP-MS detected trace metals. Co-exposure to UV ML and TET induced synergistic toxicity, elevating oxidative stress by 32 % and impairing metabolic enzyme activities. The novelty of this study lies in its integrative approach to simulating environmental weathering, characterizing leachate–antibiotic interactions, and evaluating combined phytotoxicity using Vigna radiata as a bioindicator. These findings highlight the compounded environmental risks posed by DFMs as vectors for pharmaceutical pollutants, emphasizing the urgent need for sustainable waste management strategies to mitigate long-term ecological consequences in agroecosystems.

Correction for ‘Toxicity evaluation of gold nanoparticles using an Allium cepa bioassay’ by A. Rajeshwari et al. , RSC Adv. , 2016, 6 , 24000–24009, https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ra04712b.

Plastic microfibers released from disposable face masks and triphenyl phosphate (ThP) are emerging contaminants of concern in the marine environment. However, there is a lack of scrutiny on their combined effect and dietary uptake in marine ecosystems. Therefore, the current study assessed the toxicity of ThP in the presence of MFs on the marine diatom Chaetoceros sp. and evaluated its effects on dietary exposure from Chaetoceros sp. to the crustacean Artemia salina. Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry results revealed that the uptake of ThP was reduced in Chaetoceros sp. in the binary mixture due to the reduced bioavailability of ThP in the presence of MFs. However, the combination of MFs with ThP showed more reduction in cell viability of Chaetoceros sp. than ThP-single exposure. Abbott’s mathematical model revealed an additive mode of toxicity for the mixture group. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results revealed that the mixture of MFs with ThP exhibited the highest reduction in silica content in the diatom biosilica cell wall. The pollutant mixtures impaired the photosynthetic activity, triggered oxidative stress, and reduced the diatom cell viability. Notably, dietary exposure experiments revealed that ThP (0.5 and 1 mg/L) in the absence of MFs exhibited a significant uptake in Artemia salina. However, no significant uptake of ThP was observed in Artemia salina when fed with the binary mixture pre-treated diatoms. Consequently, only the diatoms pre-treated with ThP in the absence of MFs significantly affected the neurotransmitter activity in Artemia salina. This may subsequently have resulted in enhanced reactive oxygen species production, malondialdehyde levels, and mortality. Overall, this study highlights the propensity of MFs in modulating co-contaminant toxicity and dietary uptake in marine organisms.

Microplastics and nanoparticles are emerging contaminants in the marine system. Although UV-A radiation is environmentally relevant, most ecotoxicity studies overlook its role in modulating contaminant toxicity. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the trophic transfer potential of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) in the absence and presence of amine (NH2 MPs) and carboxyl (COOH MPs) functionalized polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) under both visible-light and UV-A radiation. The experiments were performed using marine microalgae Chlorella sp. and marine crustacean Artemia salina, representing the producer-consumer food chain. Bio-uptake of Ti in Chlorella sp. was higher under UV-A treatment than under visible-light illumination. Bio-uptake of Ti in Chlorella sp. was higher in the absence of PS-MPs. A comparable pattern was observed in the bio-uptake of Ti in A. salina following dietary exposure. Consequently, A. salina fed with microalgae pre-treated with TiO2-NPs reduces survival, enhances oxidative stress, and alters neurotransmitter activity. In contrast, in the presence of PS-MPs, these detrimental effects exhibited by TiO2-NPs were reduced. In silico studies with acetylcholinesterase provided complementary mechanistic insights into the observed neurotoxicity. Under both light treatments, the biomagnification factor for TiO2-NPs and TiO2-NPs + PS-MPs was < 1, indicating no biomagnification from Chlorella sp. to A. salina. Risk quotient analysis revealed the higher ecological risk posed by the TiO2-NPs. Pearson correlation and the cluster heatmap revealed that oxidative stress and altered neurotransmitter activity may have impaired A. salina survival. Overall, this study shows how light and microplastics modulate the trophic transfer potential and toxicity of TiO2-NPs in marine organisms.

Plastic microfibers released from disposable face masks and triphenyl phosphate (ThP) are emerging contaminants of concern in the marine environment. However, there is a lack of scrutiny on their combined effect and trophic transfer potential to the higher trophic level organisms in marine ecosystems. Therefore, the current study assessed the toxicity of ThP in the presence of MFs and on the marine diatom Chaetoceros sp. and evaluated its effects on dietary exposure from Chaetoceros sp. to the crustacean Artemia salina . Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry results revealed that the bioaccumulation of ThP was reduced in Chaetoceros sp. in the binary mixture due to the reduced bioavailability of ThP in the presence of MFs. However, the combination of MFs with ThP showed more growth inhibition in Chaetoceros sp. than pristine ThP. Abbot’s mathematical model revealed an additive mode of toxicity for the mixture group. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results revealed that the mixture of MFs with ThP exhibited the highest damage to the diatom biosilica cell wall. The pollutant mixtures impaired the photosynthetic activity, triggered oxidative stress, and inhibited diatom growth. Notably, dietary exposure experiments revealed that ThP (0.5 and 1 mg/L) in the absence of MFs exhibited a significant bioaccumulation in Artemia salina. However, no significant bioaccumulation of ThP was observed in Artemia salina when fed with the binary mixture pre-treated diatoms. Consequently, only the diatoms pre-treated with ThP in the absence of MFs significantly affected the neurotransmitter activity in Artemia salina. This subsequently resulted in enhanced reactive oxygen species production, malondialdehyde levels, and mortality. Overall, this study highlights the propensity of MFs in modulating co-contaminant toxicity and trophic transfer potential in marine organisms.

The rising environmental discharge of nanoparticles requires an in-depth understanding of their chemical structure and morphology-based effects on the ecosystem. Ceria (CeO2) in particular is widely being used for a variety of applications, including catalysis, semiconductors, glass polishing, etc. While the toxicity of bulk ceria is frequently studied, the phytotoxicity effect driven by specific crystal morphologies, structures, and chemical states is not fully understood. In this study, we synthesized ceria with different morphologies, including nanorods, nanospheres, and nanocubes, to understand how the physical morphology and surface chemistry decide the toxicological outcomes in the model plant Allium cepa. We exposed the root cells to varying concentrations of these distinct morphologies and analyzed the resulting cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity. Our results indicate a dose-dependent toxicity hierarchy of nanocubes, nanospheres, and nanorods of increasing order. At 10 mg L-1, the nanorods induced severe lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and chromosomal aberrations. Furthermore, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirmed that the ceria nanospheres possessed the highest Ce3+/Ce4+ ratio, indicating a maximum defect-driven reactivity. However, the nanorods proved to be more toxic than nanospheres, highlighting that the physical aspect ratio, along with the distribution of oxidation states, decides the acute phytotoxicity. By clarifying the effects of physical damage and chemical reactivity, this work establishes the importance of nanomaterial design in safety standards and environmental risk assessment.

This study offers a novel insight into the phytotoxic dynamics of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and graphene oxide (GO) nanomaterial on Allium cepa, integrating biochemical stress markers with characterization of contaminant uptake. TBBPA exposure alone significantly compromised cell viability (up to 50 % at 10 mg L-1), elevated total reactive oxygen species (ROS), including hydroxyl and superoxide radicals, and intensified lipid peroxidation (LPO), while modulating antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT). When GO was applied individually, it induced moderate oxidative stress (46 % at 25 mg L-1); however, its co-application with TBBPA revealed an antagonistic interaction, mitigating ROS generation, reducing LPO, and partially restoring cell viability (13 %). Enzymatic profiles further supported this attenuation, suggesting a stress-buffering role of GO. LC-MS analysis confirmed the actual concentration of TBBPA in the exposure medium, and root uptake studies demonstrated a significant reduction in TBBPA accumulation in the presence of GO, suggesting that GO interferes with the bioaccumulation of the contaminant. Interestingly, TBBPA was also shown to hinder the bioavailability of GO when plants were co-exposed to both substances. This is the first report to correlate biochemical perturbations with uptake dynamics under combined exposure, highlighting the antagonistic modulation of organic pollutant toxicity by carbon nanomaterials in crop systems. The findings advance our understanding of emerging contaminant interactions and offer a mechanistic basis for sustainable risk assessment in agroecological contexts.

The increasing prevalence of nanoplastics (NPs) in soil ecosystems raises concerns regarding their phytotoxic effects. This research investigated the potential of soil extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) to overcome polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs; similar to 400 nm)-induced toxicity in Allium sativum L. Pristine aminated (ANPs) and carboxylated nanoplastics (CNPs) were initially assessed for their toxicity (0.1-10 mg L-1). Exposure to 10 mg L-1 NPs significantly reduced root length and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, with ANPs exhibiting greater toxicity than CNPs, indicating surface-charge-dependent phytotoxic effects. To elucidate the stress-mitigating potential of the soil EPS, two exposure strategies were employed with three varying ratios of EPS: (i) in situ co-addition of EPS and NPs, and (ii) ex situ EPS pre-coronation of NPs prior to plant exposure. Both approaches markedly alleviated NPs-induced oxidative stress and growth inhibition when compared to their pristine counterparts. However, ex situ EPS coronation proved more effective than the in situ addition, highlighting the importance of eco-corona formation in regulating NPs' physicochemical behaviour and plant interaction. Among the surface-functionalized NPs, EPS coronation resulted in a greater reduction of toxicity in the ANPs-treated groups compared to the CNPs-treated groups, suggesting stronger EPS interactions with positively charged NPs. Physicochemical characterisation, like Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, total organic carbon (TOC) analysis and 3-dimensional excitation and emission matrix (3D-EEM), revealed that EPS modulated the surface interactions and minimised direct cell contact of the NPs. Further, the correlation among physiological and biochemical parameters was established using a clustered heatmap and the Pearson correlation model. Overall, the findings demonstrate that soil EPS serves as a natural attenuator of NPs' phytotoxicity by modulating NPs-plant interactions and reducing their ecological risk in agroecosystems.

Industry 4.0 requires not only technological innovation and industrial upgrading but also efficient process-monitoring technology. Although existing control charts, such as those with time-varying smoothing parameters (i.e., adaptive control charts) or those based on the generalised likelihood ratio (GLR), demonstrate strong ability to detect process variation, they are primarily constructed within the frequentist framework. Given the advantages of Bayesian methods (e.g., facilitating quicker detection of process shifts or anomalies), this study develops an efficient adaptive control chart for monitoring the process mean based on the Bayesian generalised likelihood ratio (BGLR). First, the predictive distribution of the sample mean, derived via Bayesian updating, is used to estimate the process shift size. Based on this, a novel time-varying smoothing parameter is developed, leading to a new adaptive weight function. A key superiority of the proposed weight function is that it relies solely on a fixed partitioning structure and requires no user-tuned parameters during the practical implementation of an adaptive chart. Next, the out-of-control (OOC) performance of the weighted BGLR chart employing the proposed adaptive function (denoted as the ABGLR chart) is compared with that of charts using existing weight functions. The results show that the ABGLR chart performs the best, thus confirming the superiority of the proposed adaptive weight function. Furthermore, the OOC performance of the ABGLR chart is compared with that of existing adaptive charts for monitoring the process mean. The results demonstrate that the ABGLR chart outperforms the existing counterparts. Finally, the proposed ABGLR chart is illustrated using two real-world examples.

Nowadays, Bayesian methods have gained popularity among quality control researchers. Before this study, only KazemiNia, Sadeghpour Gildeh, and Abbasi Ganji (2021) proposed the Bayesian generalized likelihood ratio (BGLR) control chart to monitor the mean of a normal process. In this study, we proposed the BGLR control chart, the Bayesian cumulative sum (BCUSUM) control chart, and the combination of two Bayesian CUSUM (2BCUSUM) control charts to monitor the variance of a normal distribution process. The performance of these charts is evaluated in terms of the steady-state average time to signal. From the overall monitoring effect, with prior information known, the detection capability of the BCUSUM control chart is the best among the three control charts in terms of the results of the Monte Carlo simulation. Furthermore, an application of the proposed charts in monitoring the hard-bake process is discussed to illustrate its implementation design.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, disposable face masks have become a significant source of microplastic pollution in marine ecosystems. Diatoms, as primary producers are often used as model organism for aquatic toxicity assessments. Only a limited number of studies have examined the toxicity of mask leachate (ML) on diatoms. However, the toxicity mechanism of ML released at different time intervals is underexplored. Furthermore, the role of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) in modulating ML toxicity is also poorly understood. To address these gaps, we investigated the toxicity of ML from three time intervals (1-day, 14-day, and 21-day) on the marine diatom Chaetoceros sp., finding that toxicity increased with time: 21-day ML > 14-day ML > 1-day ML. To assess the toxicity, we have estimated chlorophyll pigment levels, reactive oxygen species, and malondialdehyde levels. Furthermore, the presence of heavy metals in the ML was analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Our results suggest that increased ROS production is a crucial mechanism of toxicity, while EPS reduces toxic effects compared to pristine ML. The interaction of EPS with ML was analyzed using Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and 3D-Excitation Emission Matrix spectroscopy. Pearson correlation and heatmap were used to assess the correlations between toxicity endpoints. This study provides critical insights into the environmental impact of ML on marine diatoms and highlights the role of EPS in mitigating ML toxicity.

Pharmaceutical products (PPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are prominent emerging contaminants that pose serious threats to marine ecosystems. The present study aimed to investigate both pristine and combined toxicity of PPs (metronidazole, diclofenac, and ibuprofen) and polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) with amine (NH2-PSNPs) and carboxyl (COOH-PSNPs) surface functionalization on marine microalgae Chlorella variabilis. Toxicity assessment included the evaluation of growth inhibition, total reactive oxygen species production, malondialdehyde content, antioxidant activity, and photosynthetic activity. Furthermore, changes in the surface functional groups of the algae after exposure to contaminants were examined. The correlation among the toxicity endpoints was assessed using Pearson correlation and cluster heatmap analysis. Zeta potential analysis and hydrodynamic size measurements revealed that the PSNPs became unstable in the presence of PPs. This instability facilitated the aggregation and rapid settlement of PSNPs, consequently impeding their direct interaction with algal cells. Growth inhibition results indicated that Chlorella variabilis exhibited minimal growth inhibition when exposed to pristine PPs (1 mg L-1), whereas PSNPs (1 mg L-1) caused substantial growth inhibition. Notably, the combined toxicity of PSNPs and PPs was lower compared to pristine PSNPs. The independent action model revealed that the combination of PPs and PSNPs showed an antagonistic mode of interaction. The potential reasons for the decreased toxicity observed in the mixture of PSNPs and PPs compared to pristine PSNPs can be attributed to diminished oxidative stress and enhanced photosynthetic activity. These findings provide valuable insights into the role of PPs in modulating the toxicity of PSNPs towards microalgae.

Monitoring the vector of times between multiple events is essential in a high-quality process such as healthcare operations. To this end, the multivariate time between events (TBE) process monitoring schemes are regularly used as one of the most straightforward and appealing visual tools. The existing literature on multivariate TBE schemes focuses almost exclusively on using complete information availed in vector-based TBE data, often making delayed monitoring as it requires observing the complete set of time values in a vector-valued observation. To address this issue, we recommend monitoring the minimum time value of vector TBE data to reach decisions faster and more efficiently. We introduce several new real-time exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) schemes for monitoring Gumbel’s bivariate exponential TBE processes. We compare them with existing schemes using fully observed vector-based schemes. A Markov chain method is developed to compute the average time to signal (ATS), and the optimal parameters are found. Finally, three real-life examples are used to illustrate the implementation of the proposed schemes.