The proto-oncogene c-myc is transcribed from a dual promoter P1/P2, with transcription initiation sites 160 base pairs apart. Here we have studied the transcriptional activation of both promoters on chromatin templates. c-mycchromatin was reconstituted on stably transfected, episomal, Epstein-Barr virus-derived vectors in a B cell line. Episomal P1 and P2 promoters showed only basal activity but were strongly inducible by histone deacetylase inhibitors. The effect of promoter mutations on c-myc activity, chromatin structure, and E2F binding was studied. The ME1a1 binding site between P1 and P2 was required for the maintenance of an open chromatin configuration of the dual c-myc promoters. Mutation of this site strongly reduced the sensitivity of the core promoter region of P1/P2 to micrococcal nuclease and prevented binding of polymerase II (pol II) at the P2 promoter. In contrast, mutation of the P2 TATA box also abolished binding of pol II at the P2 promoter but did not affect the chromatin structure of the P1/P2 core promoter region. The E2F binding site adjacent to ME1a1 is required for repression of the P2 promoter but not the P1 promoter, likely by recruitment of histone deacetylase activity. Chromatin precipitation experiments with E2F-specific antibodies revealed binding of E2F-1, E2F-2, and E2F-4 to the E2F site of the c-myc promoter in vivo if the E2F site was intact. Taken together, the analyses support a model with a functional hierarchy for regulatory elements in the c-mycpromoter region; binding of proteins to the ME1a1 site provides a nucleosome-free region of chromatin near the P2 start site, binding of E2F results in transcriptional repression without affecting polymerase recruitment, and the TATA box is required for polymerase recruitment.

Organization of DNA into chromatin has been shown to contribute to a repressed state of gene transcription. Disruption of nucleosomal structure is observed in response to gene induction, suggesting a model in which RNA polymerase II (pol II) is recruited to the promoter upon reorganization of nucleosomes. Here we show that induction of c-myc transcription correlates with the disruption of two nucleosomes in the upstream promoter region. This nucleosomal disruption, however, is not necessary for the binding of pol II to the promoter. Transcriptionally engaged pol II complexes can be detected when the upstream chromatin is in a more closed configuration. Thus, upstream chromatin opening is suggested to affect activation of promoter-bound pol II rather than entry of polymerases into the promoter. Interestingly, pol II complexes are detectable in both sense and antisense transcriptional directions, but only complexes in the sense direction respond to activation signals resulting in processive transcription.

Transcription activation and repression of eukaryotic genes are associated with conformational and topological changes of the DNA and chromatin, altering the spectrum of proteins associated with an active gene. Segments of the human c-myc gene possessing non-B structure in vivo located with enzymatic and chemical probes. Sites hypertensive to cleavage with single-strand-specific S1 nuclease or the single-strand-selective agent potassium permanganate included the major promoters P1 and P2 as well as the far upstream sequence element (FUSE) and CT elements, which bind, respectively, the single-strand-specific factors FUSE-binding protein and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K in vitro. Active and inactive c-myc genes yielded different patterns of S1 nuclease and permanganate sensitivity, indicating alternative chromatin configurations of active and silent genes. The melting of specific cis elements of active c-myc genes in vivo suggested that transcriptionally associated torsional strain might assist strand separation and facilitate factor binding. Therefore, the interaction of FUSE-binding protein and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K with supercoiled DNA was studied. Remarkably, both proteins recognize their respective elements torsionally strained but not as liner duplexes. Single-strand- or supercoil-dependent gene regulatory proteins may directly link alterations in DNA conformation and topology with changes in gene expression.

The nucleosomal structure of active and inactive c-myc genes has been analyzed in detail in undifferentiated and differentiated cells of the promyelocytic leukemia cell Line HL60. The c-myc P2 promoter was never found in nucleosomal configuration, no matter whether c-myc was expressed or not. Differences in the nucleosomal structure, however, were found in the promoter upstream region proximal to a previously described DNase I-hypersensitive site I, at the P0 promoter, and at the P1 promoter and upstream thereof. In these regions nucleosomes were detected in differentiated but not undifferentiated HL60 cells. Similar patterns of nucleosomes as found for active and inactive c-myc genes in HL60 cells were found for active and inactive episomal c-myc genes in stably transfected B cell Lines. In these cell lines three activation stages could be described for episomal c-myc constructs: (i) uninducible, (ii) inducible, and (iii) induced. Significant differences in the nucleosomal structure of c-myc were observed for the uninducible and inducible stages, but not for the inducible and induced stages.

Transcriptional activation of the c-myc proto-oncogene is mediated by the transition of promoter proximal, paused RNA polymerase II (pol II) into a processive transcription mode. Using a transcription assay which allows the high resolution mapping of transcriptional complexes in intact nuclei, we have characterized the promoter proximal pause positions of pol II. Pol II paused in a nucleosome-free region close to the transcription start site as well as further downstream, between positions +17 and +52. These pause positions were detected in both transcriptionally active and inactive c-myc genes. Pharmacological inhibition of the C-terminal phosphorylation of the large subunit of pol II did not affect the paused transcription complexes, but had an inhibitory effect on transcription of nucleosomal DNA downstream of position +150. The different properties of pol II proximal and distal to the promoter suggest a model in which c-myc transcription is regulated by the activation of promoter bound polymerases.