We describe a hyperinflation of the paranasal sinus system with fatal outcome in a macaw. The bird was presented with signs of acute respiratory distress. Initial examination revealed a voluminous bullous mass that occluded the pharyngeal cavity and obstructed the glottis. Postmortem examinations, including diagnostic imaging, gross pathology, histopathology, microbiology and molecular biology led to the diagnosis of a sinus pneumocele of the mandibular part and paratracheal recessus of the left infraorbital sinus. The bird suffered from chronic sinusitis, rhinitis and arteriosclerosis. History and histopathological findings provided indications of a nutritional imbalance and poor animal husbandry as a possible primary cause. The formation of mucoceles adjacent to the pneumocele supports the idea that occlusive chronic inflammatory alterations of the opening into the blind-ending sinus compartments resulted in a unidirectional inflow of air. Subsequent inflation into the pharyngeal cavity caused fatal upper airway obstruction.

A ural owl (Strix uralensis) was presented with reduced activity, emaciation and respiratory distress. The bird was severely emaciated and had an enlarged vent with a soft to fluctuant consistency. The differential blood count revealed a severe relative lymphopenia and nnonocytosis as well as a moderate leucocytosis. Radiographs showed increased opacity of the entire coelomic cavity. Ultrasonography revealed a mass with an echogenicity similar to that of liver parenchyma, with multiple cystic inclusions in the abdomen. At necropsy, the soft mass, initially suspected to be a cystic neoplasm of the liver, filled almost the entire body cavity. Histopathology of the structure identified a large blood clot demarcated by a broad band of inflammatory cells and giant cell granulomas from compressed liver tissue. Further granulomas were found in the spleen. Acid fast rods in the necrotic areas of the granulomas were visualized after Ziehl-Neelsen staining. Culture and PCR of liver and spleen demonstrated the presence of M. avium subsp. silvaticum in all samples tested. In all published cases of mycobacteriosis in Strigiformes, classical tubercles were reported. In the present case, radiographs and computed tomography, as well as gross necropsy, initially indicated a cystic neoplasia. The typical changes associated with nnycobacteriosis were only seen in histopathology and were confirmed by microbiology and PCR. M. avium subsp. silvaticum is a pathogen that may occur in immunocompetent hosts, although infection has not yet been reported in humans. Nevertheless, the possibility that the agent has a zoonotic potential cannot be excluded.

Voriconazole is currently recommended as first choice treatment for aspergillosis in birds. An evaluation of the influence of food intake was performed with twelve African grey parrots. The birds received 10 mg/kg voriconazole orally in the morning after overnight fasting. Five days later, the same birds were treated with 10 mg/kg voriconazole in combination with 10 ml food. Blood was sampled from 0 to 12 hours after drug application. Further, a comparison of the commercially available suspension of voriconazole with suspended tablets was performed with two groups of pigeons. Blood was taken 90 minutes after drug administration. Compared species were African grey parrots (n=17), Amazon parrots (n=10), Macaws (n=4), racing pigeons (n=10), common kestrels (n=10) and common buzzards (n=10); all birds received 10 mg/kg voriconazole orally; blood was taken after 90 minutes. There was no significant difference between the mean plasma concentrations of voriconazole in fasted African grey parrots and when the drug was given together with food, also not between the mean plasma concentrations of voriconazole from suspended tablets and commercially available suspension in racing pigeons. But there were distinct differences in plasma concentrations between species after 90 minutes. The enteral absorption of voriconazole does not seem to be influenced by food intake in African grey parrots. The formulation had no influence on the plasma concentrations in racing pigeons. As anticipated, there are obviously marked individual and species-dependent differences in the pharmacokinetics of voriconazole in birds.

The aim of the study was to obtain basic data on individual biological variation, the required number of specimens to define the homeostatic setpoint (the aspired value of a variable adjusted to the individuals homeostasis) and critical differences of selected chemistry parameters in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). Blood from 99 healthy budgerigars was sampled 12 times at four-week intervals. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST), calcium, creatine kinase (CK), glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH), glucose, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), total protein and uric acid were investigated. The indices of individuality obtained in the present study were relatively low (total protein 0-93, AST 1-02, GLDH 1.04, CK 1.12, LDH 1-24, uric acid 1-26, glucose 1-39, calcium 1-61) and suggest that population-based reference limits might be useful. Comparison of data showed that the application of intraindividual reference values identified much greater variation in the reference values than using conventional population-based reference limits. otherwise, the moderate to low degrees of individuality may allow the use of reference values of one individual as a standard for another individual of the same species. The critical differences that define the change needed between two serial results to indicate a biological change was highest in GLDH with 120 per cent or 1.7 U/l. in calcium, a change of 30(.)5 per cent or 0.5 mmol/l would be significant. In the other parameters critical differences varied between 38 per cent in glucose, up to 93 per cent in uric acid.

Reference ranges for clinical chemistry variables were established for 99 budgerigars sampled monthly for 12 months. The data from the repeated measurements were compiled to obtain the most reliable population-based reference range defined to be relevant for the population of budgerigars over the whole year. Outlying values were excluded by reference to the population-based reference range and to previously determined values from the same individual, following the guidelines of the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry. The exclusion of outliers significantly reduced the calculated reference ranges.

Standardization of methods in enzymology and its consequences illustrated on budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus Shaw 1805) Objective: In birds, where clinical signs are even less specific than in other companion animals, diagnosis has to rely to a great extent on additional clinical investigatiion methods as for example clinical chemistries. Any quantitative analyses require reference limits for assessment. These are influenced not only by the species but also by analytical methods. The aim of the presented paper was to investigate the influence of method changes from methods recommended by the German Society for Clinical Chemistry to the standards of the International Federation of Clinical Chemistries (IFCC) in clinical enzymology. Material and methods: In 40 blood samples from budgerigars enzyme activities of AST, CK, LDH, GLDH were analysed with both methods mentioned above. Results: In all of the four enzymes a linear correlation between the two methods over the whole investigated interval could be demonstrated, which allowed the calculation of conversion factors. Conclusion and clinical relevance: The results demonstrate the importance of the applied method on results of clinical chemistry analyses and emphasize that a comparison with published data is only useful if comparable methods have been applied.

A longitudinal study was performed in order to investigate virus excretion and viraemia during a clinical outbreak of the psittacine beak and feather disease in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). Viral nucleic acid was detected in feathers, cloacal swabs and blood samples. Overall, beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) DNA was detected most commonly in feather samples, followed by cloacal swabs, and least frequently from blood samples. In most cases the viraemia was short lived and correlated with clinical signs, such as feather abnormalities. Sequence analysis of the polymerase chain reaction fragment amplified from the replication-associated gene (ORF V1) indicated a close relationship with other BFDV isolates. Overall the highest level of nucleotide identity was found with the ORF V1 of another budgerigar isolate. Our results suggest that feather samples and cloacal swabs should be taken for polymerase chain reaction diagnosis to determine the presence of BFDV in an aviary, but that detection in these samples may not correlate well with psittacine beak and feather disease.

The aim of the study was to investigate if there is a clinically relevant influence of daytime or season and if there are sex-dependant differences in some frequently determined clinical chemistry parameters. The study was performed with 99 1.5- to 2-year old healthy budgerigars of three races. A harmonic regression analysis was performed taking into account linear and cyclic trends over the year. Correlations were investigated by the calculation of Spearman correlation coefficients. Summarizing, it can be said that some circadian, seasonal, as well as sex- and race-dependant influences have been shown. However, although the differences are statistically significant, they were too small to have an impact on clinical decision making. As clinical chemistry results are in practice independent from the influence factors investigated, their meaning and use as a diagnostic tool is further substantiated.

In the present study, the influence of stress from handling and transport on some frequently examined blood parameters of racing pigeons was evaluated. After 3 hr, there was a highly significant (P < 0.01) increase in the number as well as in the percentage of heterophils and decrease of lymphocytes. In clinical chemistries, increases of creatine kinase and glucose and a decrease of uric acid were observed. There was a mean decrease of the total white blood count of >15% that was less significant (P < 0.05). Changes in lactate dehydrogenase, basophils, and monocytes did not prove to be significant; eosinophils, aspartate aminotransferase, total protein, and the packed cell volume were not influenced by stress.

The purpose of this study was to obtain preliminary information on intraindividual variations of biochemical parameters in racing pigeons (Columba livia). Blood was sampled from the basilic vein at 3- to 4-day intervals on 15 occasions in 8 male and 8 female 1- to 3-year-old, healthy racing pigeons. Six clinical chemistry parameters were investigated, including aspartate aminotransferase (AST). creatine kinase (CK), glucose (GLU), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), total protein (TP). and uric acid. For each parameter. mean, median, standard deviation, minimum, maximum, and coefficient of variation were evaluated for the whole group, as well as for each individual separately. A high degree of individuality. measured by the index of individuality (IoI), for certain clinical chemistry analytes was demonstrated even within a small, well-defined group. Only TP (IoI = 0.5) met the criteria for a very high degree of individuality. which is defined as IoI less than or equal to 0.6. All other analytes had an IoI between 0.7 (AST and CK) and 0.9 (GLU and LDH). indicating a high to medium degree of individuality. Reference values based on the individual patient may help to improve diagnostic interpretation of clinical chemistry values through a better understanding of biological variation in the healthy individual. These data may help overcome the lack of established reference values in rarer species.

In a retrospective study covering a period of seven years the prevalence of tumors in budgerigars compared to other psittacine species was investigated focussing on localization, histogenesis and malignancy of neoplasms. A total of 1738 psittacines representing 31 genera were evaluated, 811 of them being budgerigars. Diagnosis of neoplasms was based on clinical and radiographical examinations. In 133 cases, the preliminary diagnosis could be verified histologically. The prevalence of neoplasms was much higher in budgerigars (20.6%) than in other psittacine species (3.6%). Besides leucosis, which affected significantly more male than female birds (1.9:1) no significant gender-related differences could be demonstrated. Most neoplasms (48.8%) were located within the body cavity. There were more mesenchymal than epithelial tumors. The skin represented the most often affected organ. Eighty-six (63.2%) tumors were classified as malignant neoplasms. Only eight of them (9.3%) metastasized.

The presented paper describes the diagnostic possibilities of the combined radiographic and ultrasonographic examination of abdominal diseases in birds. Radiographs give an overview of the skeleton system, but even with additional contrast studies of the gastro-intestinal tract it is often difficult to detect the origin or inner structure of soft tissue densities. Ultrasonography can be used to obtain information on the parenchymal texture of organs and to detect abdominal fluids. The combination of both imaging techniques is a suitable diagnostic and prognostic tool in avian medicine. The advantages and disadvantages of both examination techniques and their combination are demonstrated. In two cases additional computed tomographies were performed.

We established reference ranges for three hematologic and 15 clinical chemistry parameters of 40 clinically healthy birds of the genus Eos. The following species were included to the study: Eos histrio (n = 19), Eos squamata (n = 8), Eos bomea (n = 5), Eos reticulata (n = 4), Eos cyanogenia (n = 4). Detailed information concerning methodology, which is often missing in papers dealing with reference values, is included. As far as possible, data are compared with literature, and some thoughts on obvious deviations are given. The problem of establishing reference values in rare species is reviewed.

An eleven years old male Peach-Faced Love Bird (Agapornis roseicollis) was presented to the Clinic for Poultry and Pet Birds. Its history consisted of wing-drooping for about three weeks, the bird had fallen from the perch two weeks ago. Since this incident the bird showed paresis of the right leg and wing. After isoflurane anaesthesia the symptoms increased, the bird died some hours later. Necropsy findings were amyloidosis of the liver, arteriosclerosis, and congestion of the lungs and kidneys. In the cerebellum, the basal ganglia, the brain and the stem nuclei numerous round to ovoid slightly basophilic Lafora-like bodies were detected. Morbus Lafora neuropathy has been proven in men, a similar disease has been reported in dogs, cats, and some other mammals as well as in two cockatiels. The presented case is the first description of this disease in a Love Bird.

Sex determination was performed in 116 birds out of 30 different species by a PCR based method. In contrast to other methods already published genomic DNA of feather material was isolated and used as a sample. Furthermore optimization of PCR allowed to substitute the semi-nested PCR by a conventional PCR method, resulting in less costs and time consumption and risk of contamination by amplified DMA. 89 out of 116 results were verified by endoscopy, post mortem examination, or by a moleculargenetic method performed in another laboratory. There was a total conformity between the results of the different methods. Because sequence information of the investigated region of the CHD genes exists for only a few species, this work indicates that this region is highly conserved and can be used as an ideal molecular tool for determination of gender.

The task of this study was to determine the most suitable technique for the preparation of blood smears for differential blood counts in birds and the evaluation of different counting methods. Six different smearing techniques were judged with regard to cell distribution and cell damage. To determine the best counting area the smears were divided into six fields. The results obtained from 2400 differentiated cells were assumed to be the true differential count and served as a reference value. Additionally the influence of increasing the number of differentiated cells from 100 to 400 was evaluated. Both, the preparation and the counting technique affected the differential count results in avian blood smears. The best results could be achieved by counting the cells in the middle vertical third of smears prepared by the two-slide wedge technique with a bevel-edged slide kept at an angle of about 45 degrees to the second slide. Applicating these methods an increase from 100 to 400 differentiated cells did not improve the counting accuracy.

Small sample volumes in avian species limit the number of parameters in chemistry profiles. The aim of the present study was to check whether the use of diluted plasma is a reasonable approach to increase sample volumes for wet chemistry analyzers without affecting reliability of test results. We diluted plasma from 12 chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus), 10 pigeons (Columba livia domestica), 10 african grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus) and nine plasma pools from budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus), 1+1 and 1+2 with physiologic saline. Alkaline phosphatase (AP), aspartat-aminotransferase (AST), calcium (CA), cholesterol (CHO), creatinkinase (CK), creatinine (CREA), glucose (GLU), glutamat-dehydrogenase (GLDH), lactate-dehydrogenase (LDH), total protein (TP), triglycerides (TRI), urea (UREA) and uric acid (URIC) were determined from native samples and dilutions with a fully selective chemistry analyzer Hitachi 904 (Boehringer Mannheim) from native samples and dilutions. The results for triglycerides, cholesterol and calcium for chickens and glucose for all species did not respond sufficiently. For all other parameters reliable results for routine diagnostics can be obtained by using plasma diluted with 0.9% NaCl solution.

The task of this study was to determine the most suitable staining technique for the preparation of avian blood smears. Four commercially available fast staining kits (Diff Quick(R), Hemacolor(R), Sangodiff(R), Testsimplets(R)) were compared to two standard techniques (Wright's stain and Pappenheim's stain). All methods were judged by both their technical quality and their applicability as a routine diagnostic procedure. Wright's- and Pappenheim-stained blood films allowed a detailed visualization of nucleic and cytoplasmic structures of the cells. The fast staining kits Hemacolor(R) and Diff Quick(R) produced satisfying results, which was also true for some Sangodiff(R) stained smears. All three methods showed a loss of detail in granulocyte staining. Nevertheless, a general cell determination was always possible. Thus, these three methods were considered suitable to perform a rough differential count. Minor counting errors due to falsely or not counted basophils may occur. A morphologic evaluation of leucocytes according to signs of toxicity or activation, however, was not possible. The staining kit Testsimplets(R) proved to be unsuitable for the use in avian haematology. Taking all criteria into account, the Wright's technique has to be named as the method of choice for staining avian blood smears. The Diff Quick(R) stain may also be used as a routine stain. For comparison, a Diff Quick(R) stained smear in addition to a Wright's stained blood film is especially helpful for the evaluation of red blood cell morphology and the differentiation of questionable granulocytes. Due to its high-contrast cell presentation the Diff Quick(R) stain simplifies the cell differentiation for the beginner. Detailed structures and morphological changes, however, should be evaluated with the Wright's stain.

426 clinically healthy psittacines (71 species from 31 general were examined for the occurrence of pathogenic bacteria; 80 fecal, 316 cloacal and 226 choanal swabs were taken for bacteriological examination, in addition 146 of the cloacal and fecal swabs were also checked for Campylobacter. In 50 (62.6 %) fecal swabs, 47 (15.3 %) cloacal swabs and 50 (22.1 %) choanal swabs pathogenous or potentially pathogenous organisms like Pseudomonas sp., Pasteurella sp., Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus sp. as well as enterobacteriaceae, especial ly E. coli and coliforms, and Salmonella typhimurium could be detected. Campylobacter could not be isolated in any swab sample. The results of fecal, cloacal, and choanal swabs are compared, advantages and disadvantages-and their importance are discussed. The results lead to the conclusion that cloacal swabs are more appropriate for bacteriological examinations of birds than fecal swabs and the collection of choanal swabs is recommendable. As carriers of bacterial zoonotic diseases, examined in this study, psittaciformes do not seem to play an important role, as far as the examined bacteria are concerned.