Aims and Objectives: Trochlear dysplasia is an important risk factor associated with patellofemoral instability, but it remains difficult to classify with consistency. Currently there is no objective way to quantify the dysplasia. The purpose of this study to define and quantify objectively the trochlea morphology by volume and length via computed tomography (CT). Hypothesis: A significant difference in trochlea groove volume and length is present within a cohort of patients with recurrent patellofemoral instability if compared to a control cohort of similar patients. Materials and Methods: One-hundred control patients (136 knees) were retrospectively reviewed and compared to 36 consecutive patients (72 knees) who were treated surgically for recurrent patella instability and known trochlea dysplasia based on a lateral x-ray. Trochlea morphology was analyzed from a pre-operative CT and data presented as trochlear sulcus volume trochlea length. To determine where along the trochlea length dysplasia is most variable, the trochlea length was radiographically divided into thirds, volume was quantified along that section and compared to control trochlea. Results: A significant difference in trochlea morphology exists between cohorts, volume (1.98 vs 3.77 cm3) and length (31.97 vs 34.66 mm). However, there appears to be a gender based difference in trochlea morphology. The trochlea volumetric analysis between the female cohorts (L: 2.02 cm3 vs. 2.94 cm3, R: 1.95 cm3 vs. 2.93 cm3) demonstrated significant less volume in instability patients (p<0.001). The proximal 30% of trochlea contributed the majority of dysplasia difference determined by comparing mean trochlea volume, 95% of the difference. This difference decreased in distal sections, 53% and 32% respectively. The total trochlea length did not appear to be significant (L: p=0.858, R: p=0.913). It appears dysplasia alone may not directly lead to symptoms demonstrated by trochlea volumetric comparisons within symptomatic recurrent patella instability and contralateral asymptomatic patella (p=0.274). Conclusion: The authors believe this reproducible technique can be used to quantify the trochlea morphology into measurements to be used describing the severity of the dysplasia. The data confirms that symptomatic trochlea dysplasia is a “proximal” process affecting early knee flexion contact between patella and trochlea.

Objectives: Trochlear dysplasia is an important risk factor for the development of recurrent patella instability. Owing to its complex 3-Dimensional morphology, the need for a true lateral radiograph, and poor inter-observer reliability, the Dejour classification system of dysplasia may not be the most optimal measure for quantification. The purpose of this study is to report a novel technique to define and quantify the trochlea volume and length using an axial computed tomography. This technique was applied to a series of patients surgically treated for recurrent patellofemoral instability and the measurements compared to a control group. Methods: From 2007 to 2013, 99 control patients (136 knees) were identified from trauma CT scans obtained during admission at our Level I trauma hospital. Patients older than 35y/o or with fractures in the distal femur were excluded. Axial cuts at 1.25 mm were used to measure trochlea volume; defined to be from the physeal scar to the final axial image in which the sulcus could be visualized (Figure 1). Trochlear groove distance was measured from a midline sagittal reformatted image perpendicular to the posterior margin of the femoral condyles. The inter-observer reliability was assessed with independent measurements from attending orthopedist, MSK radiologist and two senior residents. Dysplasia patient cohort was a series of 35 patients (70knees) who were surgically treated for recurrent instability, by AAS or CME, from 2007-2013 and a diagnosis of dysplasia based on lateral knee radiograph. CT tracking studies are obtained from bilateral knees as a normal part of our pre-operative assessment. Institutional IRB approval was obtained for data retrieval. Results: Control cohort average age 25 +/- 4 years, 68 M:31F, without documented history of patella instability on chart review. Dysplastic cohort average age 24 +/- 5 years, 2 M:33F, all 35 patients had bilateral knees scanned. Statistically significant differences were noted in comparing the trochlea volume (3.75 +/- 0.97 cm3 vs. 2.0+/- 0.56 cm3) and the trochlea length (34.8 +/- 4.9 mm vs. 31.7 +/- 4.2 mm) between control and dysplastic cohorts respectively. Comparing female only patients demonstrated difference in trochlea volume (2.89 +/- 0.57 cm3 vs. 2.0+/- 0.36 cm3), but not trochlea length (31.7 +/- 2.5 mm vs. 31.7 +/- 2.7 mm). No difference in trochlea volume or length b/w symptomatic knee to asymptomatic contralateral knees in patients with recurrent instability (2.31 cm3 vs. 2.24 cm3) and (30.0 mm vs. 30.5 mm). Inter-observer reliability was assess measuring trochlea volume: ICC for Right Trochlea: 0.98, ICC Left Trochlea: 0.97. Conclusion: This novel technique clearly defines and quantifies the trochlea morphology into volume and length values with high ICC values. Applying this technique demonstrates a significant difference in both trochlea volume and length between a control group and patients treated for recurrent patellofemoral instability.

Lateral instability of the patella is a common problem that often requires reconstruction of the proximal soft tissue restraints. The medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) has been demonstrated to be the major soft tissue stabilizer to prevent abnormal lateral displacement of the patella. In this chapter we will discuss the anatomy, biomechanics, indications, and technique for surgical reconstruction of the medial patellofemoral ligament.

Treatment of focal full thickness cartilage lesions remains challenging after biologic treatment options have failed in middle-aged patients with otherwise healthy articular surfaces. A novel resurfacing system allows for intraoperative mapping of the patient's joint geometry and placement of a matched, contoured articular inlay prosthesis (HemiCAP®) as part of a tissue preserving, interim management prior to conventional arthroplasty.

BACKGROUND:To address persisting controversy in the literature concerning the efficacy of arthroscopic compared to open acromioplasty, a meta-analysis was performed to evaluate the treatment effect after both approaches.HYPOTHESIS:The final clinical outcomes will be the same after both open and arthroscopic acromioplasty. However, the arthroscopic technique results in faster recovery and less postoperative morbidity as reflected by faster return to work and decreased hospital stays.STUDY DESIGN:Meta-analysis; Level of evidence, 3.METHODS:We performed our search of published English language literature using PubMed. We also searched the proceedings from 4 major orthopaedic meetings convened from 2000 to 2007. Furthermore, the reference sections of all relevant articles were reviewed for pertinent studies and presentations. Nine studies met the inclusion criteria that directly compared arthroscopic versus open acromioplasty with minimum follow-up of 1 year. The analysis focused on 1-year clinical outcome and included comparison of the objective 100-point score, hospital stay, time until return to work, operative time, and complications.RESULTS:No significant differences were found in clinical outcomes or complications for the 2 groups. However, open acromioplasty was associated with longer hospital stays (2.3 days, P = .05) and a greater length in time until return to work (65.1 days) compared with the arthroscopic technique (48.6 days) (P < .05).CONCLUSION:Arthroscopic and open acromioplasty have equivalent ultimate clinical outcomes, operative times, and low complication rates. However, arthroscopic acromioplasty results in faster return to work and fewer hospital inpatient days compared with the open technique.

Purpose: Controversy remains regarding the results of all arthroscopic rotator cuff repairs compared to the mini-open approach. The purpose of this study was to perform a comprehensive literature search and meta-analysis of clinical trials comparing the results of all arthroscopic rotator cuff repairs and mini-open rotator cuff repairs with two years of follow-up data. Method: A computerized search of articles published between 1966 and July 2006 was performed using Medline and PubMed. Additionally, a search of abstracts from four major annual meetings each held between 2000 and 2005, was performed to identify Level I to III studies comparing the results of arthroscopic rotator cuff repair and mini-open repair. Studies that included follow-up of at least two years and included the use of one of four validated functional outcome scores used to study shoulder pathology were included in the present meta-analysis. All outcome scores were normalized to a 100-point scale to allow outcome comparison. Results: Five studies that met the inclusion criteria were identified. There was no difference in functional outcome scores between the arthroscopic and mini-open repair groups. There was a trend toward fewer complications in the arthroscopic repair group, however, this did not meet statistical significance. Conclusion: In studies with at least two years of follow-up data, there was no significant difference in functional outcome scores between the arthroscopic and mini-open rotator cuff repair techniques. The arthroscopic repair technique is a useful and successful alternative to the mini-open repair technique.

The following chapter describes an approach to the reconstruction of the medial patellofemoral ligament using a free tendon graft. The origins of the procedure, indications, patient selection criteria, technique and tips, outcomes, and pitfalls are addressed. Emphasis on proper selection of patellar and femoral attachment sites will be discussed in detail.

Traumatic arthrotomies may predispose patients to subsequent septic arthritis and therefore are regarded as serious injuries requiring emergent treatment. The saline arthrogram is a commonly used test to determine if a patient has a traumatic arthrotomy. We determined the sensitivity of the saline arthrogram to identify known intraarticular wounds in 78 patients (80 knees) undergoing elective arthroscopic procedures. There were 66 infrapatellar and 14 suprapatellar incisions. The average length of the incision was 7.5 mm. Intraarticular position was confirmed with a blunt probe. A saline arthrogram then was performed using 60 mL normal saline. The known arthrotomy (operative wound) was observed during the injection for evidence of saline leakage (positive static test). If no leakage was observed, the knee was brought through a range of motion with continued observation for leakage from the arthrotomy (positive dynamic test). Twenty-two of 80 knees had a positive test without passive range of motion of the knee (static sensitivity, 36%). Eight additional knees had a positive test with subsequent passive motion (dynamic sensitivity, 43%). Our data suggest a saline arthrogram has low sensitivity for detecting known small traumatic arthrotomy wounds of the knee. Level of Evidence: Level I, diagnostic study. See the Guidelines for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

There is no clear consensus about which therapies should be used for the various underlying pathologies that lead to patellofemoral problems. The major distinction in classification is between patellofemoral compression syndrome and patellofemoral instability. Patients with the former are concerned primarily with pain; those with the latter have instability or pain or both. Patellar pain may manifest in the parapatellar area or radiate to the back of the knee. Persons' differing activity and conditioning levels may lead to patellofemoral pain variability. Patients with patellar instability include those with recurring frank patellar dislocations and those with symptoms of subluxation. Patients who have patellar instability present with tears of the medial patellofemoral ligament; this is the essential lesion for patellar dislocation. (J Musculoskel Med. 2008;25:297-300)

Although allograft use for primary anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction has continued to increase during the last 10 years, concerns remain regarding the long-term function of allografts (primarily that they may stretch with time) and clinical efficacy compared with autograft tendons. We attempted to address these issues by prospectively comparing identical quadrupled hamstring autografts with allograft constructs for primary anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in patients with a minimum followup of 3 years. Eighty-four patients (37 with autografts and 47 with allografts) were enrolled; the mean followup was 52 ± 11 months for the autograft group and 48 ± 8 months for the allograft group. Outcome measurements included objective and subjective International Knee Documentation Committee scores, Lysholm scores, Tegner activity scales, and KT-1000 arthrometer measurements. The two cohorts were similar in average age, acute or chronic nature of the anterior cruciate ligament rupture, and incidence of concomitant meniscal surgeries. At final followup, we found no difference in terms of Tegner, Lysholm, KT-1000, or International Knee Documentation Committee scores. Five anterior cruciate ligament reconstructions failed: three in the autograft group and two in the allograft group. Our data suggest laxity is not increased in allograft tendons compared with autografts and clinical outcome scores 3 to 6 years after surgery are similar.

Background Controversy remains regarding the results of all arthroscopic rotator cuff repairs compared with the mini-open approach. The purpose of this study was to perform a comprehensive literature search and meta-analysis of clinical trials comparing the results of arthroscopic rotator cuff repairs and mini-open rotator cuff repairs. Hypothesis There is no difference between the clinical results obtained from all arthroscopic rotator cuff repairs compared with mini-open repairs. Study Design Meta-analysis. Methods A computerized search of articles published between 1966 and July 2006 was performed using MEDLINE and PubMed. Additionally, a search of abstracts from 4 major annual meetings each held between 2000 and 2005 was performed to identify Level I to III studies comparing the results of arthroscopic rotator cuff repair and mini-open repair. Studies that included follow-up of an average of over 2 years and a minimum of 1 year and included the use of 1 of 4 validated functional outcome scores used to study shoulder injuries were included in the present meta-analysis. All outcome scores were converted to a 100-point scale to allow for outcome comparison. Results Five studies that met the inclusion criteria were identified. There was no difference in functional outcome scores or complications between the arthroscopic and mini-open repair groups. Conclusion Based on current literature, there was no difference in outcomes between the arthroscopic and mini-open rotator cuff repair techniques.

Whether open surgery and arthroscopic repair of posterior shoulder instability have similar success rates remains unknown, but the literature suggests that arthroscopic soft-tissue stabilization procedures equal open surgery in managing posterior shoulder instability. A comprehensive PubMed computer search of the English-language literature from 1988 to 2004 was performed using the key phrase posterior shoulder instability. Studies included in our analysis addressed the surgical treatment of recurrent posterior instability and multidirectional instability with primarily a posterior component of instability; studies were excluded if their minimum follow-up was less than 1 year, if their patients had a history of habitual posterior shoulder instability, or if their patients had either bony procedures or thermal capsulorrhaphy. Data collected from each study included patient demographics, instability classifications (traumatic vs atraumatic), previous shoulder stabilizations, and clinical outcomes. After identifying and reviewing 283 abstracts, we found that 16 articles fulfilled the inclusion criteria--9 open studies (173 patients) and 7 arthroscopic trials (186 patients). The 2 treatment groups had similar sex distributions (P> .25). Mean age was 23 years for the open group and 26 years for the arthroscopic group (P< .02). Clinical outcomes were rated satisfactory by 72% of patients in the open group and 83% of patients in the arthroscopic group (P< .55), controlling for age. Eighty-five percent of patients treated with an open technique and 81% of patients treated arthroscopically returned to sports (P< .82). This study demonstrated no statistical difference in clinical outcomes for patients treated with either open or arthroscopic surgery for posterior shoulder instability.

As a method to address patellofemoral pain, chondrosis, and malalignment, Fulkerson introduced anteromedialization of the tibial tuberosity. Short- and intermediate-term follow-up demonstrate efficacy. Patellofemoral cartilage lesion extent and region analysis allows for refined indications to optimize results. This article reviews the historical background, technique, results, and biomechanical rationale. The overview will assist in optimally integrating the procedure in the treatment armamentarium for patellofemoral disease.

Background The clinical success of arthroscopic distal clavicle resection for athletes has been well documented. There are, however, no published studies that prospectively compare the recovery rates in athletes as well as the outcomes of the indirect versus direct approaches. Hypothesis Both procedures are equally successful; however, the direct approach affords faster return to sports. Study Design Randomized controlled clinical trial; Level of evidence, 2. Methods Thirty-eight consecutive athletes with osteolysis of the distal clavicle or isolated posttraumatic arthrosis of the acromioclavicular joint without instability underwent arthroscopic distal clavicle resection. The patients were randomized into 2 groups: a direct superior approach and an indirect subacromial approach. American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons and Athletic Shoulder Scoring System scores were measurable outcomes. Results Thirty-four athletes were available for a minimum 2-year follow-up. The 2 groups were similar, including preoperative American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons and Athletic Shoulder Scoring System scores. Both groups demonstrated significant improvement in both scores at final follow-up when compared with preoperative scores (P < .001). The direct group demonstrated higher American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (82 vs 64) and Athletic Shoulder Scoring System (74 vs 56) scores at week 2 (P < .001) and week 6 (American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons, 88 vs 77; Athletic Shoulder Scoring System, 87 vs 73) (P < .001). At final follow-up, both groups demonstrated excellent clinical outcomes, even though there was a statistical difference in scores, with the direct group scoring better (American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons, 95.7 vs 91.2; Athletic Shoulder Scoring System -94.9 vs 88.3). The direct group demonstrated faster return to sports (mean, 21 days) than the indirect group (mean, 42 days) (P < .001). Radiographic analysis demonstrated an equivalent resection. One patient in each group had a clinically insignificant increase in coracoclavicular distance. Conclusions Both the direct superior approach and the indirect subacromial approach to the arthroscopic distal clavicle resection result in successful clinical outcome with clinically insignificant difference at final follow-up. Athletes treated with the direct superior approach improved faster clinically and returned to sports earlier.