Electroencephalographic (EEG) analysis allows measurement of electrical activity in bundles of neurons around electrodes placed at various locations on the scalp. In this essay, we provide an overview of the biological basis of EEG methodology and outline basic principles and practices of data collection. We conducted a study using EEG to test expectations from two competing cognitive theories of communication-computational theory and dynamic memory theory. Participants (N = 30) were assigned to one of two conditions-routine talk and direction-giving. EEG was used to measure the electrical activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), an area of the brain that is associated with message production. Results indicated that DLPFC activity was far more suggestive of dynamic memory theory. Specifically, electrical activity in the DLPFC was significantly lower during routine talk than during direction-giving. We discuss the implications of our findings and the limitations of EEG methods in communication research.

A large corpus of neuroscience research suggests that resting levels of asymmetry in the anterior region of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) underlies the ability to self-regulate emotions and behaviors related to affective traits. Several studies have specifically linked resting asymmetry in the PFC to variables of interest to interpersonal communication scholars. These variables include verbal aggression, shyness and communication apprehension, social competence, sociability, perspective-taking, and interpersonal defensiveness. Meta-analysis of the studies examining resting asymmetry in the PFC and these other variables indicated that (a) an average sample-weighted (attenuated) correlation of .437 (average r = .447 when corrected for attenuation) and (b) all of the variance in r was attributable to sampling error.

In this study, we examined the relationship between trait-like communication apprehension (CA) and resting alpha range asymmetry in the anterior cortex (AC). Although theory and research in cognitive neuroscience suggest that asymmetry in the AC constitutes a relatively stable, inborn, substrate of emotion, some studies indicate that asymmetry can be increased by experimentally induced transitory anxiety. Transitory anxiety produced by interaction with strangers covaries with trait-like CA, raising questions regarding whether asymmetrical electrical activity in the AC during data collection represents resting levels as assumed in the literature or transitory reactions to dyadic interaction with the experimenter. Because the question if unanswered poses issues for theory and approaches to remediation, we computed correlations among alpha range asymmetry in the AC gathered by electroencephalograph (EEG) while participants were at rest, transitory anxiety scores referring to the participants' interactions with the experimenter, and CA scores gathered four weeks earlier. Results revealed a partial correlation based on disattenuated correlations, r = .51, p < .05, between CA and EEG scores when the effects of transitory anxiety due to participant-experimenter interaction were removed.

A large corpus of neuroscience research suggests that resting levels of asymmetry in the anterior region of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) underlies the ability to self-regulate emotions and behaviors related to affective traits. Several studies have specifically linked resting asymmetry in the PFC to variables of interest to interpersonal communication scholars. These variables include verbal aggression, shyness and communication apprehension, social competence, sociability, perspective-taking, and interpersonal defensiveness. Meta-analysis of the studies examining resting asymmetry in the PFC and these other variables indicated that (a) an average sample-weighted (attenuated) correlation of .437 (average r = .447 when corrected for attenuation) and (b) all of the variance in r was attributable to sampling error.

The trait tendency to express affectionate messages is positively related to a range of physical health and well-being indicators. Thus far, the literature on affectionate communication has not examined this trait from a neurological perspective linked to such indicators. Using an approach-avoid framework of temperament, this study tests the notion that high-affection communicators have greater relative electrical activity in the left anterior cortex versus the right anterior cortex, as reflected in baseline electroencephalograph recordings. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that high-affection communicators have greater relative left activity than less affectionate communicators. Discussion centers on what conclusions can be drawn, and how research might be informed by linking trait affection to fundamental temperament reflected in anterior brain asymmetry.

Over the past ten years, studies comparing monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twin pairs in terms of intelligence, personality, and social behavior have increasingly appeared in major research journals. Importantly, many of the variables examined are central constructs in communication theory. Assertiveness, social anxiety, self-monitoring, and empathy are but a few of the variables studied in the twins literature. In the present study, mean heritablility estimates for three clusters (interpersonal affiliation, aggressiveness, and social anxiety) were computed. The studies selected for analysis focused on variables that have been frequently cited in mainstream reference texts and/or professional journals in communication. Conservative data analytic procedures were adopted. Specifically, (1) unless evidence of additive gene effects was absolute, nonadditive gene effects were assumed; (2) unless reliability coefficients were reported in a study, the highest reliability reported in the literature for the measure was employed in correction procedures; and (3) observer ratings, although imperfect, were not corrected for attenuation due to error in measurement. Results indicated that interpersonal affiliation was 70% heritable, aggressiveness was 58% heritable, and social anxiety was 65% heritable. Notably, heritably estimates were not larger for self-report measures than for behavioral observation. Criticisms of the twins designs, possible moderators, and theoretical implications are discussed.

(2007). A Test of the Cognitive Load Hypothesis: Investigating the Impact of Number of Nonverbal Cues Coded and Length of Coding Session on Observer Accuracy. Communication Reports: Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 11-23.

A substantial body of scholarship focused on the processes involved in message planning has accumulated in the communication literature. One of the central tenets of memory models upon which most of the message planning models are based is that dynamic memory systems organize and reorganize knowledge structures to maximize information processing efficiency. Accordingly, efficiency can be achieved by merely retrieving and enacting plans that have achieved goals previously under similar conditions. Plan failure, however, requires alteration or even production of an original plan. Although researchers have relied exclusively on output (e.g., response latency, memory tests) to draw inferences about planning processes, it is possible to observe cognitive processes more directly by measuring cortical responses. In the present study, electrical activity was monitored in the region of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during verbal planning. Results indicated that (a) electrical activity while planning under conditions that permitted enactment of verbal plans that required no modification was significantly lower than during planning in the initial trial but, (b) electrical activity while planning under conditions in which previous efforts failed was significantly higher than during planning in the initial trial. These results provide physical evidence for the hypothetical cognitive processes proposed in the cognitivist models of routine formation.

Formulating cognitive representations of others' mental states when interpreting behavior (i.e., 'theory of mind') rather than merely focusing on the behavior is considered a distinctly human trait which both interpersonal scholars and cognitive neuroscientists agree plays a critical role in the development and maintenance of social relationships. Although. brain-imaging studies have led to huge advances in the understanding of memory and language, theories of social relationships remain relatively uninformed by cognitive neuroscience. In the present study, hypotheses regarding the implementation of theory of mind in a relationship context are (a) derived from extant theory and research, and (b) tested via brain-imaging technology. Specifically, spectrum analyses were conducted using brain wave recordings collected by an electroencephalograph (EEG) monitoring oscillations in the gamma range for the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices while participants attempted to construct cognitive representations regarding a friend's request refusal. Results indicated statistically greater electrical activity in both cortical regions for participants engaged in the task than for participants in the control condition. The implications of the findings for building a fully elaborated sequential process model of cognitive representations in interpersonal contexts, among other theoretical endeavors, are discussed.

Two studies are reported which sought to determine the possible limitations of the proposition that “temperament is manifest through communication.”; The results of earlier studies suggest that many communication related traits indeed are correlated with one or more temperament variables. In the present study Willingness to Communicate, Singing Apprehension, and Innovativeness were found to be associated with one or more of the BIG THREE temperament variables. Writing apprehension was found to have no meaningful relationship with any of the temperament variables. It is concluded that, while most important oral communication traits probably are correlated with one or more temperament traits, some other communication traits, like writing apprehension, may not be.

This study was undertaken to examine whether the relationships reported in the communication literature between Eysenck's BIG THREE personality dimensions and self-reported Patterns of communication behavior remain robust when observation-based measures are used in place of self-reports. Target participants' responses to measures of these three personality dimensions were used to predict Peer ratings of two patterns of communication behavior, verbal aggressiveness and affinity-seeking competence. Composite measures for variables were based on the results of confirmatory factor analysis, ensuring both internal and external consistency (parallelism). Results of a path analysis, in which targets' responses to personality measures were employed as exogenous variables and peer ratings of verbal aggressiveness and affinity-seeking competence were used as endogenous variables indicated that these data fit the model extremely well. Importantly, (1) substantial variation in peer rated affinity-seeking competence (R = .55) was attributed to the direct effects of extraversion and neuroticism (negative cofficient), and (2) substantial variation of peer rated verbal aggressiveness (R =.58) was attributable to direct effects of psychoticism and extraversion (negative coefficient) and an indirect effect of extraversion and neuroticism mediated by affinity-seeking competence (negative coefficient). Implications for communication theory and research are discussed.

People with high communication apprehension talk less and are less satisfied in their communication with others. In the classroom, students high in communication apprehension talk less, are less motivated, and are less successful than students low in communication apprehension. The intention of this study was to focus on how students’ trait communication apprehension was related to their motives for communicating with their instructors. Findings show that the motives of relational, participation, and functional are negatively related to communication apprehension.

Over the past ten years, studies comparing monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twin pairs in terms of intelligence, personality, and social behavior have increasingly appeared in major research journals. Importantly, many of the variables examined are central constructs in communication theory. Assertiveness, social anxiety, self-monitoring, and empathy are but a few of the variables studied in the twins literature. In the present study, mean heritability estimates for three clusters (interpersonal affiliation, aggressiveness, and social anxiety) were computed. The studies selected for analysis focused on variables that have been frequently cited in mainstream reference texts and/or professional journals in communication. Conservative data analytic procedures were adopted. Specifically, (1) unless evidence of additive gene effects was absolute, nonadditive gene effects were assumed; (2) unless reliability coefficients were reported in a study, the highest reliability reported in the literature for the measure was employed in correction procedures; and (3) observer ratings, although imperfect, were not corrected for attenuation due to error in measurement. Results indicated that interpersonal affiliation was 70% heritable, aggressiveness was 58% heritable, and social anxiety was 65% heritable. Notably, heritability estimates were not larger for self-report measures than for behavioral observation. Criticisms of the twins design, possible moderators, and theoretical implications are discussed.

This study examined the relationships of physician socio‐communicative style variables (assertiveness and responsiveness) with patients’ perceptions of the physician's credibility (competence, trustworthiness, goodwill/caring) and patients’ satisfaction with their physician and the quality of medical care they received. Results indicated that both dimensions of socio‐communicative style were associated with all dimensions of physician credibility, that physician credibility was highly associated with patients’ satisfaction, and that responsiveness was highly associated with patient satisfaction. Results are interpreted as supporting the underlying theory of socio‐communicative style and indicating that socio‐communicative style is an important component of physician‐patient communication.

Over the past decade, communication scholars have increasingly considered biological contributions to the ways in which we communicate. One approach to exploring the links between biology and communication involves analysis of relationships between communication variables and variables containing strong biological underpinnings. The present study was designed to provide an examination of the relationship between Eysenck's personality dimensions and communication variables. This essay reports the results of three separate studies that encompass more than a dozen communication variables. The results seem to indicate that non-neurotic extraverts are not shy or apprehensive about touch, tend to perceive themselves as more competent, view themselves as assertive and responsive, and express greater degrees of self-acceptance. Neurotic introverts report apprehension about communication, perceive themselves as less immediate, rate themselves as having a lower affect orientation, and somewhat higher levels of verbal aggressiveness. Neurotic participants report less self-acceptance. Neurotic non-psychotics report a greater degree of affect orientation, more apprehension about communication, and lower verbal aggression. Neurotic psychotic extraverts tend to be compulsive communicators and report greater tolerance for disagreement. Psychotics are non-responsive, and tend to report higher levels of verbal aggressiveness, argumentativeness and assertiveness. Finally, psychotic non-neurotics tend to have a greater tolerance for disagreement and are less likely to identify themselves as compulsive communicators. Possible directions for future research are suggested.

This study examined the relationships between the nonverbal immediacy of physicians and their patients’ satisfaction with them as doctors and overall medical care. Consistent with the results of previous studies in the instructional and organizational communication areas, substantial associations were found in this medical context. Patients who see their physicians as more immediate report more satisfaction with the physician and are generally more satisfied with the medical care they receive. The patients also indicated experiencing less fear of their physician when the physician was more immediate.

Improving the care of persons at the end of their lives is a major priority of medical associations and patient advocacy groups. Central to this effort is the need to better prepare health care surrogates so that they will be able to respect the dying person's wishes if that person loses decision making capacity. But efforts to facilitate communication between dying persons, their surrogates, and health care providers have not been fully successful. We conducted a telephone survey of 174 randomly selected adults from a mid‐sized university community to determine whom people wanted to function as their surrogate, to test the hypothesis that overconfidence in the surrogate's ability may impede communication, and to examine gender differences in communication preferences with surrogates. Spouses were the most frequently selected surrogate, followed by an adult child. Women were more likely to be selected than men were. As expected, persons overestimated their surrogates' abilities to represent their interests. Two other predictions were not confirmed. Interactions between gender and whether the person was responding as a patient or surrogate were observed. These results confirm the value of applying uncertainty management theories to health issues and lead to recommendations for improving communication between patients and their surrogate decision makers.

Communibiology has emerged recently as a new paradigm for the study of communication. A model for the study of communibiology is advanced and two studies are presented which exemplify one method of beginning research under this paradigm. The results indicate how theories related to whether variables are or are not genetically based can be preliminarily tested.

Over the past two decades, a large amount of research focusing on correlates and consequences of communication apprehension has accumulated. Despite this massive research effort, few, viable models of the development of the trait have been proffered. Also during the past twenty years, psychobiologists have made impressive strides toward the explanation of human behavior by identifying underlying neurological processes, especially in affective domains. lit this essay, we propose a theory of communication apprehension, anchored in the trait-oriented work of psychobiology as articulated in the temperament literature. Drawing from the extensive work of both psychobiologists and communication apprehension researchers in our field, we contend that communication apprehension represents individuals' expression of inborn, biological functioning, which has been shown to be antecedent to social experience and, therefore, independent of social learning processes. In formulating our theoretical framework we (1) present a temperament-based conceptualization of communication apprehension, (2) integrate neurologically-based temperament functions into three fundamental propositions based on communication apprehension research, and (3) discuss the implications of our theoretical position.