We present center-surround application to James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS) observations of Io, Jupiter's innermost moon. This project is part of the JWST Early Release Science pro- gram ERS1373 (Co-PI's Imke de Pater, Thierry Fouchet) on the Jovian system. Io is the most geologically active body in our solar system; however, the locations of tidal heating in the interior and temperature of Io's magma leading to the volcanic eruptions are not well constrained (Keszthelyi et al. 2016). NIRISS's Aperture Masking Interferometry (AMI) mode that utilizes a 7-hole non-redundant mask (NRM) in its pupil plane provides high-resolution imaging with moderate contrast and better astrometric accuracy over a wide field of view than conventional imaging. We present interferometric observations of Io from ERS1373 using NRM and filter F430M that is well matched to the emission from Io's 500 K to ~1500 K lava flows. Convolution of Io images with the center-surround kernel emphasizes fine structure on Io's disk. This convolved image is used as a 'prior' to reconstruct images from Io's interferometric data, thus helping to provide new measurements of the global distribution of vulcanism on Io.

The Large Binocular Telescope, with its expansive collecting area, angular resolving power, and advanced optical design, provides a robust platform for development and operation of advanced instrumentation for astronomical research. The LBT currently hosts a mature suite of instruments for spectroscopy and imaging at optical through mid-infrared wavelengths, supported by sophisticated adaptive optics systems. This contribution summarizes the current state of instrumentation, including upgrades to existing instruments and commissioning of second generation instruments now in progress. The LBT is soliciting proposals for next generation instrument concepts, with participation open to consortium members and others interested in participation in the Observatory.

A new development in the field of adaptive optics (AO) on ground-based telescopes enables routine monitoring of changes on Io's surface at scales down to ~80km (achieved), or even down to ~50km (in the limit). Our observations, taken with SHARK-VIS on the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) in Arizona, demonstrate this new capability. SHARK-VIS adds a visible light science channel to the AO system at LBT. While AO science in the infrared has been widespread for decades, visible-light AO science is new. SHARK-VIS, which saw first light at LBT on October 2nd, 2023, is one of only a few visible-light AO instruments on large telescopes.Our images of Io, taken soon after first light, are of the highest spatial resolution ever attained from a ground-based telescope. In addition to confirming known surface features, these images show a previously unseen plume deposit that obscures a portion of Pele's persistent red ring (see Fig. 1). This plume deposit, we believe, came as the result of a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera.Figure 1. The SHARK-VIS detection image on Nov. 23, 2023 (upper left), and again on Jan. 10, 2024 (upper right), and the reprojection of the Voyager and Galileo spacecraft-derived Io photomomosaic for Jan. 10, 2024 (center) (Becker & Geissler, 2005).To determine the date of the Pillan eruption, we analyzed thermal emission data collected by other telescopes over the last four years. Although these infrared images were necessarily taken at lower spatial resolution (due to the wavelengths used), the spatial resolution is sufficient to detect if and when excess thermal emission might have originated from Pillan Patera. These data show a spike in thermal emission, indicating a powerful eruption, during August 2021. Augmented with data from the Juno JIRAM instrument, we believe that this spike corresponds to the eruption responsible for the plume deposit seen in the SHARK-VIS images.These SHARK-VIS images serve as a demonstration of how adaptive optics at visible wavelengths will allow us to monitor surface changes on Io at regular intervals. Note that, prior to the SHARK-VIS observation, the most recent high-resolution imaging of the Pele region was from the New Horizons fly-by during March 2007. By April 2024, as seen by the visible imager on the Juno spacecraft, the red ring around Pele had repaired itself. Without the SHARK-VIS images, this resurfacing event would have never been detected.To date, regular monitoring of Io using ground-based facilities has largely been restricted to M-band (4.8 μm) imaging which, even using adaptive optics on 8-10 metre telescopes, yields spatial resolution of about 400-600 km. While there will always be a need for infrared images of Io for the thermal data that informs volcanology, visible-light images at 50-80km resolution allow us to "see" the landscape, to more accurately locate the effects of eruptions and associated features such as plume deposits.In our presentation, we will provide details of the Pillan plume deposit and its encroachment onto Pele's ring, and how that observation serves as a demonstration of how we will be able to monitor surface changes on Io going forward. We will also describe future ground-based systems that could produce imaging of Io down to spatial scales below 12km.

SHARK-NIR is an instrument providing high-contrast coronagraphic imaging, dual band imaging and low resolution spectroscopy in Y, J and H bands, taking advantage of the high performance of the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) AO systems. Its main scientific drivers is the detection and characterization of exoplanets, circumstellar disks, Solar System small bodies and acrive galactic nuclei. Binocular observations are provided by exploiting the synergy with SHARK-VIS (operating in V band) and LMIRCam of LBTI (operating from K to M band). SHARK-NIR was shipped to LBT in June 2022, and up to November 2022 was the subject of the three pre-commissioning runs: the first to install and test the instrument in the high-bay LBT clean tent, the second to install and align the instrument to the telescope and the third to perform daytime testing. This pre-commissioning phase resulted in the successful alignment of the instrument with a very good internal optical quality and the performance of additional tests using simulated turbulence injected through LBT Adaptive Secondary Mirror. In January 2023 we had the first commissioning run and the instrument first light, in which we successfully tested the imaging capabilities with and without the Gaussian Lyot coronagraph. In March 2023 we had the second commissioning run, in which despite the bad weather we successfully performed a variety of technical activities, as well as preliminary testing of the Shaped Pupil coronagraph. After two additional commissioning runs in May and October, our first early scientific run in October 2023 focused on the Taurus star formation region, a region populated by targets of considerable scientific interest. In this paper we will give an overview of commissioning and the early science phases running from October 2023 to May 2024, focusing on the technical challenges we overcame and future work needed to push the instrument to its very limit, as well as presenting the first preliminary scientific results.

Decline and recovery timescales surrounding eclipse are indicative of the controlling physical processes in Io's atmosphere. Recent studies have established that the majority of Io's molecular atmosphere, SO2 and SO, condenses during its passage through Jupiter's shadow. The eclipse response of Io's atomic atmosphere is less certain, having been characterized solely by ultraviolet aurorae. Here we explore the response of optical aurorae for the first time. We find oxygen to be indifferent to the changing illumination, with [O I] brightness merely tracking the plasma density at Io's position in the torus. In shadow, line ratios confirm sparse SO2 coverage relative to O, since their collisions would otherwise quench the emission. Io's sodium aurora mostly disappears in eclipse and e-folding timescales, for decline and recovery differ sharply: 10 minutes at ingress and nearly 2 hr at egress. Only ion chemistry can produce such a disparity; Io's molecular ionosphere is weaker at egress due to rapid recombination. Interruption of a NaCl+ photochemical pathway best explains Na behavior surrounding eclipse, implying that the role of electron impact ionization is minor relative to photons. Auroral emission is also evident from potassium, confirming K as the major source of far red emissions seen with spacecraft imaging at Jupiter. In all cases, direct electron impact on atomic gas is sufficient to explain the brightness without invoking significant dissociative excitation of molecules. Surprisingly, the nonresponse of O and rapid depletion of Na is opposite the temporal behavior of their SO2 and NaCl parent molecules during Io's eclipse phase.

During late spring 2022, using JWST aperture masking interferometry (ERS program #1373) and ground-based adaptive optics at the Keck telescope, we detected a new emission feature in Io’s Bosphorus Regio. To pinpoint the location more accurately we followed up with the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT). An accurate location will help determine if this feature is part of the Emakong Patera, is part of the Seth Patera, or is an independent volcano emitting lava from its own magma source. Here we report on the LBT observation and data analysis.On UT November 8th, 2022, we observed Io with the Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer (LBTI). We acquired over 30,000 14ms frames over a period of 4 hours and parallactic angle coverage of approximately 70 degrees. Data were acquired at both M-band (4.8 microns) and a wide band-pass spanning 2.2 to 5.0 microns. As in past LBTI observations of Io (Conrad et al., 2015), we employed lucky fringing and frame selection to assemble a data set in which all frames are co-phased. From these data (taken with a 23-meter baseline), we expect to determine the location of the feature to a degree of accuracy approximately three times greater than is possible with adaptive optics on 8-10 meter ground-based telescopes.Image reconstruction is the preferred method for combining interferometer data for most science programs. However, for science programs that a) require only accurate astrometry of point sources (all volcanoes in our data are unresolved at the observed wavelengths) and b) utilize data taken with a Fizeau interferometer like LBTI, we have developed a simpler method. This method has two advantages. First, the method preserves the spatial information available in the raw data. Image reconstruction can sometimes shift the location of a measured source. Second, with our method data taken at different wavelengths can still be combined to yield a single measurement. Image reconstruction methods can only combine images which were all taken with the same filter.The method is quite simple. Because a Fizeau interferometer like LBTI provides complete images (i.e., the image is not reconstructed from visibilities and closure phases), we can take a one-dimensional cut through each fringe pattern as it appears in the raw data. From each cut we compute a one-dimensional centroid to get a sub-pixel location along that baseline. These results, taken at different baseline angles (the LBTI baseline rotates with parallactic angle) are statistically combined to produce a single location measurement. This location is then mapped from detector space to a latitude and longitude on the sphere of Io. The uncertainty in the measurement is reflected as two orthogonal error bars, one for latitude and one for longitude, computed by statistically combining the individual uncertainties of each cut.This same method can be used to locate other volcanoes visible in our data set, which will be the subject of a future work.

SHARK-NIR is a near-infrared coronagraphic camera designed to exploit the excellent perfomances of the LBT Adaptive Optics system SOUL. Its main science target its the detection and characterization of exoplanets. Second generation instrument of the LBT, SHARK-NIR left 5 years ago its paper and models realm to become a real working instrument. Its compact size is a consequence of the available volume and required stiffness, but shall not convince you of a simple opto-mechanical design, translating in requirements for all the interconnected fields of software, electronics, archiving, etc. In this paper we will report the main steps that drove SHARK-NIR to become a real instrument with laboratory validated performances and the upcoming path towards commissioning, focusing on the coordination, interfaces and interactions of all the different involved fields, expertise and institutes of the consortium as well as of the hosting telescope.

This paper considers how, since 1976, the International Astronomical Union Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements (WGCCRE) has made recommendations regarding coordinate systems and rotational element standards for planetary bodies that are needed for mapping and the planning, execution, and interpretation of observations.We recommend that the Planetary Science Decadal and Astrobiology Decadal Survey committee and panels (hereafter, the "Survey") should endorse the value of cartographic standards as provided by the WGCCRE, suggest the collection of community input to improve the working group's services, and describe how increased support would enable key improvements in order to achieve the benefits of enhanced return from planetary science data.

Little is known about Earth quasi-satellites, a class of near-Earth small solar system bodies that orbit the sun but remain close to the Earth, because they are faint and difficult to observe. Here we use the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) and the Lowell Discovery Telescope (LDT) to conduct a comprehensive physical characterization of quasi-satellite (469219) Kamoʻoalewa and assess its affinity with other groups of near-Earth objects. We find that (469219) Kamoʻoalewa rotates with a period of 28.3 (+1.8/−1.3) minutes and displays a reddened reflectance spectrum from 0.4–2.2 microns. This spectrum is indicative of a silicate-based composition, but with reddening beyond what is typically seen amongst asteroids in the inner solar system. We compare the spectrum to those of several material analogs and conclude that the best match is with lunar-like silicates. This interpretation implies extensive space weathering and raises the prospect that Kamo’oalewa could comprise lunar material. The Earth’s most stable quasi-satellite, Kamoʻoalewa, displays an extremely red reflectance spectrum typical of space weathering of lunar-like silicate material which raises the possibility that it is formed of material originating from the Moon

Little is known about Earth quasi-satellites, a class of near-Earth small solar system bodies that orbit the sun but remain close to the Earth, because they are faint and difficult to observe. Here we use the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) and the Lowell Discovery Telescope (LDT) to conduct a comprehensive physical characterization of quasi-satellite (469219) KamoModified Letter Turned Commaoalewa and assess its affinity with other groups of near-Earth objects. We find that (469219) KamoModified Letter Turned Commaoalewa rotates with a period of 28.3 (+1.8/-1.3) minutes and displays a reddened reflectance spectrum from 0.4-2.2 microns. This spectrum is indicative of a silicate-based composition, but with reddening beyond what is typically seen amongst asteroids in the inner solar system. We compare the spectrum to those of several material analogs and conclude that the best match is with lunar-like silicates. This interpretation implies extensive space weathering and raises the prospect that Kamo'oalewa could comprise lunar material. The Earth's most stable quasi-satellite, KamoModified Letter Turned Commaoalewa, displays an extremely red reflectance spectrum typical of space weathering of lunar-like silicate material which raises the possibility that it is formed of material originating from the Moon

The composition of comets in the solar system comes in multiple groups thought to encode information about their formation in different regions of the outer protosolar disk. The recent discovery of the second interstellar object, 2I/Borisov, allows for spectroscopic investigations into its gas content and a preliminary classification of it within the solar system comet taxonomies to test the applicability of planetesimal formation models to other stellar systems. We present spectroscopic and imaging observations from 2019 September 20 through October 26 from the Bok, MMT telescope (formerly the Multiple Mirror Telescope, Mount Hopkins, Arizona), and Large Binocular Telescopes. We identify CN in the comet's spectrum and set precise upper limits on the abundance of C(2)on all dates in October. We use a Haser model to convert our integrated fluxes to production rates and findQ(CN) = (1.1-1.9) * 10(24)mols s(-1)increasing over 2019 October 1 to 26, consistent with contemporaneous observations. We set our lowest upper limit on a C(2)production rate,Q(C-2) < 1.6 * 10(23)mols s(-1)on 2019 October 10. The measured upper limit ratio for that dateQ(C-2)/Q(CN) < 0.1 indicates that 2I/Borisov is strongly in the (carbon-chain) "depleted" taxonomic group if there is any C(2)production at all. Most "depleted" comets are Jupiter-family comets (JFCs), perhaps indicating a similarity in formation conditions between the most depleted of the JFCs and 2I/Borisov. More work is needed to understand the applicability of our knowledge of solar system comet taxonomies onto interstellar objects and we discuss future work that could help to clarify the usefulness of the approach.

The Facility AO systems at the LBT are based around the two Adaptive Secondary Mirrors (ASM) and the Pyramid Wavefront Sensors (PWFS), the latter being recently upgraded as part of the SOUL project in order to provide improved image quality performance and greater faint target sensitivity, at the LUCI and LBTI ports. These represent operational AO Systems with unique challenges for maintaining their optimal operational status. Based on our experience, especially over the last seven years, we present our approach to provide the readiness of the AO systems at all times including routine calibration, monitoring, and maintenance activities necessary to keep their performance at an optimal level. We also address intervention activities to improve the ASMs’ reliability and robustness.

The Jovian moon Io hosts the most powerful persistently active volcano in the Solar System, Loki Patera. The interior of this volcanic, caldera-like feature is composed of a warm, dark floor covering 21,500 square kilometres surrounding a much cooler central 'island'. The temperature gradient seen across areas of the patera indicates a systematic resurfacing process, which has been seen to occur typically every one to three years since the 1980s. Analysis of past data has indicated that the resurfacing progressed around the patera in an anti-clockwise direction at a rate of one to two kilometres per day, and that it is caused either by episodic eruptions that emplace voluminous lava flows or by a cyclically overturning lava lake contained within the patera. However, spacecraft and telescope observations have been unable to map the emission from the entire patera floor at sufficient spatial resolution to establish the physical processes at play. Here we report temperature and lava cooling age maps of the entire patera floor at a spatial sampling of about two kilometres, derived from ground-based interferometric imaging of thermal emission from Loki Patera obtained on 8 March 2015 ut as the limb of Europa occulted Io. Our results indicate that Loki Patera is resurfaced by a multi-phase process in which two waves propagate and converge around the central island. The different velocities and start times of the waves indicate a non-uniformity in the lava gas content and/or crust bulk density across the patera.

Why should large telescopes be designed to observe solar system objects? The relative impact of planetary science to the other fields in astronomy can be debated, but here we look at this question in the light of a more pragmatic consideration: the issue of funding large facilities for astronomical research. Firstly, the education and public outreach (EPO) efforts of ground-based telescopes benefit signficantly from programs to support spacecraft missions, and from planetary science in general. Strong EPO leads to increased funding. Consider the now iconic image of Uranus shown in figure 1, which was produced with an early AO system on one of today’s large telescopes. Secondly, space agencies (NASA, ESA, etc) often fund high angular resolution at large observatories to vet mssion targets (Defrère, et al., 2008), to probe a target’s surroundings for spacecraft hazards (Merline, et al., 2012), and/or to characterize an object’s shape, size, density, and spin pole for missioning planning (Drummond, et al., 2010; Carry, et al., 2012). It is this second potential funding benefit that we address in this paper. We discuss here the expanding role of ground-based telescopes for remotely supporting spacecraft missions and, in particular, the role of high angular resolution. In section 2 we give examples of past and current spacecraft visits that have benefited from ground-based imaging and spectroscopy prior to their encounter. In section 3 we look at plans for the future, with emphasis on the role of the 23-to-39 meter telescopes, so-called extremely large telescopes (ELT), which are just now coming on line.