Optimizing irrigation and sowing schedules is critical for enhancing crop performance and resource efficiency, especially in water-limited environments. However, the balancing the trade-offs between crop yield, energy use, and environmental impacts remains a complex challenge. This study investigates the eco-efficiency of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivation in Vojvodina region (Serbia) under three irrigation regimes (100%, 80%, and 60% of crop evapotranspiration—ETc) and three sowing periods (mid-April, late May/early June, and late June/early July). A combined energy analysis and cradle-to-farm gate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was employed to assess sustainability trade-offs. Results show that early sowing with full irrigation achieved the highest crop yields, energy use efficiency, and net energy gain while minimizing specific energy input. However, this strategy also incurred the greatest environmental burden due to elevated water and fertilizer inputs. In contrast, late sowing and deficit irrigation reduced environmental impacts at the expense of productivity and energy performance. The most balanced outcome—combining acceptable yield with lower environmental pressure—was observed under early sowing (mid-April) and moderate deficit irrigation (60% of ETc). Importantly, the study reveals discrepancies between energy and environmental assessments; energy analysis favors high-yield, high-input systems, whereas LCA emphasizes environmental burdens per unit area, often favoring low-input strategies. These findings underscore the need for integrated, site-specific management approaches that optimize both agronomic performance and environmental sustainability, particularly under growing climate and resource constraints.

Hydrogen is increasingly recognized as a clean energy vector and storage medium, yet its viability and strategic role in the Western Balkans remain underexplored. This study provides the first comprehensive techno-economic, environmental, and strategic evaluation of hydrogen production pathways in Albania. Results show clear trade-offs across options. The levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) is estimated at 8.76 €/kg H2 for grid-connected, 7.75 €/kg H2 for solar, and 7.66 €/kg H2 for wind electrolysis—values above EU averages and reliant on lower electricity costs and efficiency gains. In contrast, fossil-based hydrogen via steam methane reforming (SMR) is cheaper at 3.45 €/kg H2, rising to 4.74 €/kg H2 with carbon capture and storage (CCS). Environmentally, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) results show much lower Global Warming Potential (<1 kg CO2-eq/kg H2) for renewables compared with ~10.39 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 for SMR, reduced to 3.19 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 with CCS. However, grid electrolysis dominated by hydropower entails high water-scarcity impacts, highlighting resource trade-offs. Strategically, Albania’s growing solar and wind projects (electricity prices of 24.89–44.88 €/MWh), coupled with existing gas infrastructure and EU integration, provide strong potential. While regulatory gaps and limited expertise remain challenges, competition from solar-plus-storage, regional rivals, and dependence on external financing pose additional risks. In the near term, a transitional phase using SMR + CCS could leverage Albania’s gas assets to scale hydrogen production while renewables mature. Overall, Albania’s hydrogen future hinges on targeted investments, supportive policies, and capacity building aligned with EU Green Deal objectives, with solar-powered electrolysis offering the potential to deliver environmentally sustainable green hydrogen at costs below 5.7 €/kg H2.

IntroductionEmerging contaminants in irrigation wastewater can cause bioaccumulation in crops, posing health risks to humans and other living organisms. The extent to which different emerging contaminants (ECs) are taken up by plants varies depending on the physicochemical properties of the contaminants and the type of crops grown.MethodsThis study investigated the fate of emerging contaminants (ECs), particularly pharmaceuticals, in durum wheat grown on soils irrigated with treated wastewater in southern Italy. The experiment was conducted in lysimeters irrigated with wastewater during previous crop cycles, assessing the presence and distribution of ECs in both soil and plant tissues. Three different levels of exposure to ECs were compared: freshwater irrigation (FW), wastewater treated to European average contaminant levels (TWWx1), and a triple dose of contaminants (TWWx3).ResultsThe behavior of 12 different ECs in the plant-soil complex was analyzed and found variable. Fluconazole and carbamazepine were found to have higher uptake concentrations in the plant, with accumulation observed in the plant and grain, especially in the TWWx3 treatment. However, some ECs (such as Sulfamethoxazole, Trimethoprim, Ketoprofen, Diclofenac, Metoprolol, and Naproxen) showed high uncertainties in their fate, probably due to degradation in soil and influential crop parameters.DiscussionThe results of this study contribute to the argument that the reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation, if properly monitored, can be a safe approach in agriculture and can support policymakers in developing future legislative frameworks for sustainable water management.

Apples play a vital role in Albania, with more than half produced in the Korça region. The expanding apple sector in Albania calls for research to evaluate energy balance and environmental sustainability and ensure sustained long-term viability. For the first time, this study examined the energy balance and environmental impacts of intensive apple production in the Balkan countries, specifically focusing on Albania’s Korça province. The life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) and life cycle assessment (LCA) approach were used for the assessment. The energy input and output figures for apple production were computed at 61,910 MJ/ha and 99,968 MJ/ha, respectively, resulting in a net energy gain of 37,858 MJ/ha. The consumed total energy input is classified as 68% direct, 34% indirect, 15% renewable, and 85% non-renewable. Energy use efficiency (EUE), specific energy (SE), and energy productivity (EP) were calculated as 1.61, 1.49 MJ/kg, and 0.67 kg/MJ, respectively. Farm machinery inputs (diesel and tractor unit) for mechanized operations constituted the largest energy input with 47% of total energy input, followed by irrigation (25%), and fertilization (18%). The most recent life cycle assessment method, IMPACT World+ v.2.0.1, was utilized, including both midpoint and expert versions, to quantify environmental impacts at both midpoint and endpoint levels. Apple production notably impacts climate change (60%), freshwater acidification (64%), freshwater and marine eutrophication, land occupation (almost 100%), particulate matter formation (> 74%), and photochemical oxidant formation (76%). Identified as major environmental hotspots, chemical fertilizers and mechanization contribute significantly to these environmental implications.

In the Apulia region (Southern Italy), the issue of water scarcity is escalating, making wastewater reclamation and reuse crucial options for promoting sustainable development. Despite substantial financial investments, the practical adoption of wastewater reuse for agricultural irrigation remains constrained. Using a quantitative SWOT framework, we analyzed market, social, and product-related factors impacting water reuse. A questionnaire with 23 out of 30 expert stakeholders, including researchers, public administration officials, utility members, farmers, and engineers, was used to evaluate the significance of each aspect identified in the SWOT analysis. The key drivers of a wastewater-reuse-based economy include improved water availability during drought, a commitment to the circular economy, and existing successful agricultural reuse projects. Conversely, identified obstacles encompass the lack of storage basins for storing wastewater between seasons to synchronize production with crop water needs, inadequate political dedication to oversee groundwater withdrawals, difficulties in controlling investments, and bureaucratic demands arising from stringent regulation. Underpinned by the recently enacted EU Water Reuse Regulation, the reuse of wastewater is crucial for addressing water scarcity, mitigating aquifer over-exploitation, and achieving objectives related to the circular economy. However, moving forward, an updated governance framework integrating continuous monitoring, active stakeholder engagement, and investments in intermediate storage facilities is imperative for effective and sustainable wastewater reuse. This research provides novel empirical evidence and expands upon existing studies on barriers and opportunities related to reclaimed water in a Mediterranean context and regions facing similar challenges. The findings can serve as a valuable reference for future research in this field.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) stands as a valuable agricultural commodity, witnessing an increasing market inclination toward environmentally sustainable and eco-friendly products. The current literature on the environmental impact and profitability of saffron cultivation is limited, underscoring a notable gap in comprehending the sustainability aspects of this crop. This study utilized a comprehensive multi-model approach to assess the sustainability of annual saffron cultivation, representing the first global detailed evaluation, conducted within a European context (Southern Italy). Energy analysis, physical and monetized life cycle assessment (LCA), and life cycle costing (LCC) were used for a cradle-to-farm gate assessment. One hectare of cultivated saffron, one saffron production yield (stigma, corm, and flower), and 1 kg of stigma yield were used as functional units. The total energy input was 65,073 MJ ha−1, being 33% direct, 67% indirect, 72% renewable, and 28% non-renewable. The majority (55%) of energy is derived from corm production. For 1 kg of saffron the energy efficiency, specific energy, and productivity were 2.98, 4.64 MJ kg−1, and 0.22 kg MJ−1, respectively, while these values dropped significantly for 1 kg of stigma. The multi-indicator LCA analysis using the ReCiPe 2016 model revealed significant contributions to various environmental impact categories. Results align with prior research, pinpointing fertilization and mechanical operations as the primary drivers of diverse environmental impacts. A noticeable carbon intensity was estimated, with a relevant contribution from corm production and human labor, aspects overlooked in previous LCA studies. Saffron cultivation maintains economic viability, with production costs at EUR 98,435 per ha−1 and a net return margin of EUR 172,680 per ha−1, bolstered by the high market price and by-product revenue. Monetization of LCA results revealed that external costs were EUR 15,509 per ha−1, being only 14% of the total cost. Investments in improving yield and resource efficiency have the potential to increase the eco-efficiency of saffron cultivation.

Cotton cultivation is resource-intensive, posing significant environmental challenges, especially with conventional farming methods. Growing interest in sustainable agriculture drives the exploration of organic farming as a potential alternative with lower environmental impacts. Despite its benefits, organic farming often faces criticism for lower crop yields, sparking debates on the trade-offs between productivity and environmental impact. This study hypothesizes that organic cotton farming will have a smaller environmental footprint and higher energy efficiency compared to conventional methods. To test this hypothesis, a cradle-to-farm gate energy analysis and life cycle assessment (LCA) were conducted on both organic and conventional seed cotton production systems in the Beheira governorate of Egypt. The ReCiPe 2016 midpoint and endpoint characterization model was used for an environmental impact assessment. The impacts were evaluated using two functional units: one ton of seed cotton and one hectare of cultivated cotton. The findings revealed that organic cotton outperforms conventional cotton in net energy gain, efficiency, and profitability, with higher productivity and lower energy intensity. Regardless of the functional unit used (mass- or land-based), the assessed organic systems generally show a better environmental performance than the conventional systems in the local context, even when accounting for data uncertainty. This is due to lower input intensity and the use of less energy-intensive organic fertilizers and bio-fertilizers. Fertilization and irrigation are key factors influencing environmental impacts, with fertilization affecting midpoint impacts and irrigation affecting endpoint impacts. Therefore, precision fertilization, efficient irrigation practices, and effective nutrient and soil moisture management are recommended to minimize environmental impacts. Subsequent studies could explore whether similar patterns are observed in different geographic regions and evaluate additional social and economic aspects of cotton sustainability beyond environmental impacts. Future agricultural LCAs should use both mass-based and area-based functional units to capture a broader range of environmental effects and evaluate the co-benefits and trade-offs between organic and conventional practices.

Precision agriculture is increasingly relying on tractor auto-steer systems to boost productivity and optimize crop inputs. Identifying field variations and performance, on the other hand, is necessary for giving site-specific recommendations. This study reports the field operating performance indicators of manual (MG), semi-automatic (SG), and automatic (AG) tractor guidance for weed control in wheat production in Southern Italy. Performance indicators include effective worked area, overall working time, effective field capacity, field efficiency, fuel consumption, and product usage. The SG tractor guidance working times were similar to the MG, but with significant savings in the herbicide spray solution and work quality. In terms of all parameters examined, the AG outperformed the SG and MG. The AG was 54% faster than the MG, resulting in an increased area worked and effective field capacity of 5 and 46%, respectively. The total time (effective time plus non-productive time) was reduced by 28%, while overlapped areas by 88.9%. Herbicide and fuel input was reduced by 30 and 11.5%, respectively. A streamlined environmental analysis indicated that AG could reduce the energy and carbon intensity of the one-time weed control process by 25 and 27% for each hectare. Our results confirm that auto guidance provides numerous benefits (e.g., machining uniformity, increased work quality, reduced resource use, and reduced environmental burdens), supporting the larger goal of agricultural production sustainability.

The reuse of treated wastewater for crop irrigation is vital in water-scarce semi-arid regions. However, concerns arise regarding emerging contaminants (ECs) that persist in treated wastewater and may accumulate in irrigated crops, potentially entering the food chain and the environment. This pilot-scale study conducted in southern Italy focused on tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L. cv Taylor F1) irrigated with treated wastewater to investigate EC uptake, accumulation, and translocation processes. The experiment spanned from June to September 2021 and involved three irrigation strategies: conventional water (FW), treated wastewater spiked with 10 target contaminants at the European average dose (TWWx1), and tertiary WWTP effluent spiked with the target contaminants at a triple dose (TWWx3). The results showed distinct behavior and distribution of ECs between the TWWx1 and TWWx3 strategies. In the TWWx3 strategy, clarithromycin, carbamazepine, metoprolol, fluconazole, and climbazole exhibited interactions with the soil-plant system, with varying degradation rates, soil accumulation rates, and plant accumulation rates. In contrast, naproxen, ketoprofen, diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim showed degradation. These findings imply that some ECs may be actively taken up by plants, potentially introducing them into the food chain and raising concerns for humans and the environment.

Fertilization with variable rate technology (VRT) is a pivotal technique of precision agriculture proposed for eco-friendly farming practices. Yet the magnitude of environmental benefits is often not well known or is highly variable. This study used a multi-indicator model and life cycle-based indicators to compare the performance of rain-fed durum wheat production using uniform (UA) and variable N fertilization (VRT). Two functional units were used: 1 ha of cultivated wheat and 1 ton of wheat produced. The energy analysis indicated that VRT increases energy use efficiency and productivity by 13.3%, reduces specific energy and total energy input by 11.7%, and increases net energy gain by 15.3%. The life cycle assessment (LCA) analysis indicated that for some environmental impacts, VRT had minor negative effects due to the comparable yield performance with UA. Yet, the VRT had a noteworthy positive impact on global warming, fine particulate matter formation, stratospheric ozone depletion, terrestrial acidification, and marine eutrophication, generating a final environmental benefit of 12.2% for 1 ton of product and 13.3% for 1 ha of land. Economic valuation or monetization of LCA results using monetization weighting factors indicated indirect economic benefits of VRT can be up to 6.6% for 1 ton of product and 7.7% for 1 ha of land. Our findings support the use of nitrogen fertilization with VRT for sustainable extensification and improved eco-efficiency of wheat production in a Mediterranean context. As a result of our research, we conclude that future case studies on annual crops with moderate land requirements should employ multiple metrics and functional units, as well as the concepts of monetization and life cycle assessment, to investigate trade-offs between yield, economic, and environmental benefits and to aid decision-making about the true sustainability of proposed farming technologies. Graphical abstract

This study evaluated the eco-efficiency of rainfed and irrigated maize production in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Environmental impact assessments were performed through energy analysis, carbon footprint, and water scarcity footprint analysis. For economic analysis, gross and net returns and benefit-cost ratios were calculated. Eco-efficiency was measured by the ratio between the net return and environmental criteria. The findings indicate that transition from rainfed to irrigated maize cultivation per unit of land results in a 53.7% higher yield and gross value of production, but also a 69.8% increase in energy input, a 22% rise in greenhouse gas emissions, and a 3.6fold increase in the water scarcity footprint. While a positive link exists in irrigated maize between higher yield and lower carbon footprint per unit of product, rainfed systems outperform in energy efficiency, productivity, profitability, water scarcity footprint, and overall eco-efficiency. Both systems rely heavily on nonrenewable energy sources, with fertilization (energy and carbon footprint), mechanization (carbon footprint), and irrigation (water scarcity) as the main contributors to the negative environmental impacts. The implementation of optimization strategies for these inputs is of paramount importance to reduce environmental impacts and promote sustainability in maize farming in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

This paper analyzed the water-energy-environmental interactions in conventional wheat and maize production on a generic farm in Albania using a cradle-to-farm gate life cycle assessment (LCA) and energy analysis. The inputs considered were seeds, fuel, electricity, fertilizers, plant protection, irrigation water, and machinery. Energy use efficiency, specific energy, energy productivity, and net energy gain in wheat production were calculated as 4.95, 2.63 MJ kg−1, 0.38 kg MJ −1, and 49,692 MJ ha−1, respectively. For maize, these values were 7.63, 1.93 MJ kg−1, 0.52 MJ kg−1, and 82,513 MJ ha−1, respectively. Producing 1 ton of wheat requires 2626 MJ of energy, 288 m3 of water, and generates a global warming potential (GWP) of 242.2 kg CO2-eq, terrestrial acidification potential (TAP) of 4.05 kg SO2-eq, and freshwater eutrophication (FEP) of 0.135 kg P-eq. On other hand, maize requires 1927.1 MJ of energy, 561 m3 of water, and generates a GWP of 181.1 kg CO2-eq, TAP of 2.82 kg SO2-eq, and FEP of 0.1 kg P-eq. The wheat and maize production produces a single environmental score of 69.3 and 60.2 points where the foreground subsystem (on-farm) contributes to more than 75% of the total environmental load. Irrigation, machinery use, and fertilizer use and application caused most of the environmental impacts and energy consumption. As a wide range of agriculture modernization projects is taking place across Albania, footprint indicators and energy analysis are recommended to design sound farming and irrigation practices and explore synergies and trade-offs of agricultural intensification.

To address sustainability challenges, agricultural advances in Mediterranean horticultural systems will necessitate a paradigmatic shift toward smart technologies, the impacts of which from a life cycle perspective have to be explored. Using life cycle thinking approaches, this study evaluated the synergistic environmental and economic performance of precise irrigation in greenhouse Zucchini production following a cradle-to-farm gate perspective. A cloud-based decision support system and a sensor-based irrigation management system (both referred to as "smart irrigation" approaches) were analyzed and compared to the farmer's experience-based irrigation. The potential environmental indicators were quantified using life cycle assessment (LCA) with the ReCiPe 2016 method. For the economic analysis, life cycle costing (LCC) was applied, accounting not only for private product costs but also for so-called "hidden" or "external" environmental costs by monetizing LCA results. Smart irrigation practices exhibited similar performance, consuming on average 38.2% less irrigation water and energy, thus generating environmental benefits ranging from 0.17% to 62%. Single score results indicated that life cycle environmental benefits are up to 13% per ton of product. The cost-benefit analysis results showed that even though the implementation of smart irrigation imposes upfront investment costs, these costs are offset by the benefits to water and energy conservation associated with these practices. The reduction of investment costs and higher water costs in future, and lower internal rate of return can further enhance the profitability of smart irrigation strategies. The overall results of this study highlight that smart and innovative irrigation practices can enhance water-energy efficiency, gaining an economic advantage while also reducing the environmental burdens of greenhouse cultivation in a Mediterranean context.

This paper provides an overview of existing LCA literature analyzing the environmental impacts of wastewater treatment and reuses, with irrigation as a process or scenario. Fifty-nine (n = 59) papers published between 2010 and 2022 were reviewed to provide insights into the methodological choices (goals, geographical scope, functional units, system boundaries, life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) procedures). The results show that LCA research has steadily increased in the last six years. The LCAs are case-study specific, apply a process perspective, and are primarily conducted by European authors. The LCAs are mainly midpoint-oriented with global warming, acidification and eutrophication potential as the most common impact categories reported. Volumetric-based functional units are the most widely applied. The most commonly used LCIA models were ReCiPe and CML, with Ecoinvent as the most commonly used database and SimaPro as the primary LCA software tool. Despite the fact that these methods cover a wide range of midpoint impact categories, nearly half of the studies focused on a few life cycle impact category indicators. In many studies, the LCA scope is frequently narrowed, and the assessment does not look at the cradle-to-grave system boundary but rather at cradle-to-gate or gate-to-gate system boundaries. Regardless of technology or other system boundary assumptions, the design of environmentally efficient wastewater reuse schemes is primarily determined by the type of energy supplied to the product’s life cycle. Our findings highlight that more holistic studies that take into account the expansion of system boundaries and the use of a broad set of environmental impact categories, supported by uncertainty and/or sensitivity analysis, are required. The overview presented in this paper serves as groundwork for future LCA studies in the field of irrigation with treated wastewater.

Globe artichoke is propagated by seed (seed propagated, SP) or by plant (vegetative propagated, VP). To date, there is a lack of knowledge of how the propagation system affects the life cycle resource use and environmental performance of globe artichoke production. We combined energetic, exergetic, and environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) to explore “cradle-to-farm gate” resource use and environmental impacts of Mediterranean globe artichoke production using VP and SP. The cumulative energy and exergy were calculated using cumulative energy demand (CED) and cumulative exergy extraction from the natural environment (CEENE). The environmental impacts classified in different impact categories were assessed using the ReCiPe 2016 method. The functional units were 1 ton of artichoke heads (reflecting production efficiency) and 1 ha of cropped land (reflecting production intensity). The results show that the VP globe artichoke generate 14% lower CED (64,212 vs. 75,212 MJ ha−1) and 17% lower CEENE (88,698 vs. 106,664 MJexha−1) per 1 ha of land while 1 ton of product generates higher impact: 29% CED (5384.4 MJ vs. 4178.5 MJ ton−1) and 25% CEENE (7391.5 vs. 5927 MJex ton−1). On a mass basis, SP artichokes had lower water consumption (−18%), freshwater and marine ecotoxicity (−47%), and stratospheric ozone depletion (−32%), but a higher global warming (+19%), fossil (+36%) and mineral scarcity (+39%), and human toxicity-related impacts (+27%). At the endpoint level, VP globe artichoke has higher damage to human health (+13.4%) and ecosystem quality (+20.5%), but lower to resource availability (−24.5%). The single-score LCA analysis indicated that SP globe artichokes generate a 24% higher impact per 1 ha (1911.3 vs. 1452.7 points) but 14% less per unit of product (106 vs. 121.1 points). For both systems, water and fertilizer should be used more carefully and efficiently since the application of irrigation, fuel, and fertilizers were the major contributors to total environmental damage.

Olive cultivation is expanding rapidly in the northwestern part of Greece, under both rainfed and irrigated practices. Irrigation can result in larger yields and economic returns, but trade-offs in the water–energy–pollution nexus remain a controversial and challenging issue. This study presents an environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Greek olive orchard systems in the plain of Arta (Epirus), comparing rainfed (baseline), Decision Support System (DSS)-based (smart) irrigation practices and farmer experience-based (conventional) irrigation practices. The contributions in this paper are, first, to provide a first quantitative indication of the environmental performance of Greek olive growing systems under different management strategies, and second, to detail the advantages that can be achieved using smart irrigation in olive cultivation in the Greek and Mediterranean contexts. Eighteen midpoints (e.g., climate change, water scarcity, acidification, freshwater eutrophication, etc.), two endpoints (damages on human health and ecosystem quality), and a single score (overall environmental impact) were quantified using the IMPACT World+ life cycle impact assessment method. The LCA model was set up using the OpenLCA software v1.10.3. The functional units were 1 ton of product (mass-based) and 1 ha of cultivated area (area-based) on a cradle-to-farm gate perspective. Irrigated systems had the lowest impacts per mass unit due to higher yields, but showed the highest impacts per cultivated area. The DSS-based irrigation management could reduce water and energy use by 42.1% compared to conventional practices. This is translated into a reduction of 5.3% per 1 ton and 10.4% per 1 ha of the total environmental impact. A sensitivity analysis of impact assessment models demonstrated that the benefits could be up to 18% for 1 ton of product or 22.6% for 1 ha of cultivated land. These results outline that DSS-based irrigation is a promising option to support less resource-intensive and sustainable intensification of irrigated agriculture systems in the plain of Arta.

Treated wastewater (TWW) reuse is a practice involving a series of life cycle environmental and socio-economic benefits and trade-offs. This raises a fundamental question: Is this practice sustainable from the life cycle perspective? In a first of its kind study, using physical and monetized life cycle assessment (LCA) we assessed environmental impacts and external costs of reuse of TWW for irrigation in Trinitapoli, Southern Italy. The release of secondary effluent in the sea and water supply from groundwater was modeled as a baseline scenario. The life cycle impact (LCIA)-model ReCiPe 2016 was applied for analysis. The results at the midpoint level revealed the immanent trade-off between the benefits of reduced water consumption and nutrient pollution and additional impacts for energy and infrastructure for tertiary treatment. The endpoint-based LCA evaluation shows that TWW reuse can bring environmental benefits to human health and ecosystems, even though it is connected to higher damage to resources. Finally, both the physical and economic weighting of LCA results indicated that TWW reuse delivers a lower total environmental impact and total external cost as benefits of reduced water consumption and marine eutrophication counterbalance the reclamation detrimental impacts. A sensitivity analysis using three life cycle methods (IMPACT World+, Environmental prices, and Environmental footprint) provided essentially similar conclusions by portraying TWW as a more advantageous option in a water-scarce region like Trinitapoli. Renewable-based energy mix and energy efficiency can drive the net benefit higher. Overall this analysis delivered two main research thrusts: one detailed environmentally extended LCA profile and the other integrating a financial axis in the LCA-based impacts allowing for a new sustainability-oriented perspective of the TWW reuse in the Mediterranean environment. The model framework can be expanded further to include microbial and chemical risk assessment and impacts of substituted products for more robust, comparative assessments.

The estimation and quantification of external environmental costs (hidden costs) are crucial to sustainability assessments of treated wastewater reuse projects. These costs, however, are rarely considered in economic analysis studies. In this work, monetized life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) were combined into a hybrid model to calculate cradle-to-farm gate external environmental costs (EEC) and internal costs (IC) of producing 1 t of plant-based product irrigated with reclaimed water in a Mediterranean context. The total cost was calculated by combining monetized LCA and LCC results. The results for the crops under consideration were 119.4 €/t for tomatoes, 344.4 €/t for table grapes, and 557 €/t for artichokes. Our findings show that there are significant hidden costs at the farm level, with EEC accounting for 57%, 23%, and 38% of the total cost of tomatoes, table grapes, and artichokes, respectively. Electricity use for water treatment and fertilization generated most of the EEC driven by the global warming, particulate matter, acidification, and fossil resource scarcity impact categories. When compared to groundwater, the higher internal costs of reclaimed water were offset by lower external costs, particularly when supported by low-energy wastewater treatment. This demonstrates that incorporating EEC into economic analyses might generate a better understanding of the profitability of treated wastewater reuse in crop production. In Italy and the Mediterranean region, research on the sustainability of water reuse in irrigation through life cycle thinking is still limited. Using a multi-metric approach, our analysis brought new insights into both economic and environmental performance – and their tradeoff relationships in wastewater reuse for irrigation of agricultural crops. In future research, it would be of interest to use different monetization methods as well as to investigate social externalities to explore their size and role in the total external costs.