We carried out this study to explore the role of maternal lifetime stressor exposure on child effortful control at age 4 years, using data from the Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study (n = 1,101). At child's age 4 years the mother reported whether she had ever experienced any of the following: death of someone close, violence, abuse, bullying, serious financial problems, hunger or homelessness, and being a refugee. We did not find an impact of maternal lifetime exposure to stressors on child effortful control. Findings were null irrespective of operationalisation of adversity (i.e., whether a linear or threshold model of cumulative risk was tested or whether specific adversities were considered). Socioeconomic risk and gender were far stronger predictors and remained significant across models. Future research should explore how proximal experience of socioeconomic disadvantage impacts effortful control early in development.

This study identified latent trajectories of physical aggression (TPA) from infancy to preschool age and evaluated (a) effects of early parent, parenting and child predictors on TPA as well as on social, behavioral, and academic functioning in Grade 2, and (b) TPA effects net of early predictor effects on Grade 2 functioning. We used data from the Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study (BONDS), which included 1,159 children (559 girls). Parents reported on risk and protective factors, and on physical aggression from 1 to 5 years of age; teachers reported on Grade 2 outcomes. We employed latent class growth curve analyses and identified nine TPA. In fully adjusted models simultaneously testing all associations among predictors, trajectories, and outcomes, maternal and paternal harsh parenting, child gender, and sibling presence predicted TPA, which significantly predicted externalizing and academic competence in Grade 2. Child gender had a pervasive influence on all outcomes as well as on TPA. To our knowledge, this is the first trajectory study to determine which predictors are most proximal, more distal, or just confounded, with their relative direct effect sizes, and to link early paternal as well as maternal harsh parenting practices with children’s TPA. Our findings underscore the need to include fathers in developmental research and early prevention and intervention efforts.

The Social Skills Improvement System-Rating Scales (SSIS-RS) and the Social Skills Improvement System Social and Emotional Learning Edition (SSIS SEL) are rating scales used to assess social behavior in children and adolescents. While the SSIS-RS is well-regarded and used worldwide, the SSIS SEL is establishing foothold. In the current study, we used confirmatory factor analyses to investigate the structural validity of teacher-reported social skills in both the SSIS-RS and SSIS SEL in a large sample of Norwegian first-grade students (n = 879). Our evaluation indicates that the six-factor SSIS SEL models displayed superior fit compared to the seven-factor structures of SSIS-RS in our data. Results provide evidence of (a) several excessive factor correlations in both structures, (b) a few items overlapping in content, and (c) five items that appeared statistically distinct from the overall concepts of social skills (SSIS-RS) and social and emotional competency (SSIS SEL).

IntroductionSymptoms of depression in early childhood have been linked to interpersonal difficulties, whereas friendships serve a protective function.MethodsIn the present study, we examined depression symptoms in preschool age (4 years) in relation to social skills (communication and cooperation), and friendships into early school age (Grades 1 and 2) in a large subsample (n = 943) of Norwegian children.ResultsThe results indicated that preschool depression symptoms negatively predicted Grade 1 communication skills, which in turn predicted Grade 2 depression symptoms. This pathway suggests that communication skills may be a maintenance factor for depression symptoms in young children. In addition, preschool depression symptoms predicted lower Grade 1 cooperation skills, which in turn predicted lower Grade 2 communication skills, suggesting that preschool depression symptoms may begin a cascade of social skill problems that affect cooperation and communication skills into early school years. Best friendships were negatively related to depression symptoms in preschool and Grade 2.DiscussionGiven that preschool depression symptoms impact the development of social skills and friendships, it is important to attend to depression symptoms in early childhood.

Socioeconomic disparities in early language are widespread and have long-lasting effects. The aim of this study is to investigate when social gaps in language problems arise and how they change across the first years of schooling. We address this question in two large longitudinal Norwegian datasets: the Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study (BONDS) and the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). Despite some slight differences across the two samples, we found that children from higher social backgrounds are less likely to have language difficulties starting from age 18 months and up to age 8 (grade 2). Moreover, while early language problems are strongly predictive of later language, maternal education makes an additional contribution to explaining language difficulties at the beginning of school life. Social inequality in language development arises early, even in a country like Norway, with low unemployment and one of the most egalitarian societies in Europe.

Both maternal and paternal supportive parenting (i.e., sensitivity, warmth, stimulation, and engagement) across early childhood have been found to be associated with multiple domains of children's positive socioemotional functioning. However, few studies have considered how maternal and paternal supportive parenting may interact to impact child development. Thus, the present study assessed direct and moderated longitudinal relations between maternal and paternal supportive parenting in toddlerhood (24 and 36 months, respectively) and fathers' and teachers' reports of children's socioemotional and behavioral adjustment in first grade. Data were drawn from a large, sample of Norwegian parents and children (N = 455, 51% female, 49% male, 10% endorsed financial strain, 75% of fathers and 86% of mothers born in Norway). After controlling for child temperamental activity level and soothability in infancy, path analysis revealed that higher paternal supportive parenting was associated with fewer symptoms of father-reported child hyperactivity/impulsivity in first grade. In addition, a significant interaction between maternal and paternal supportive parenting was evident for three out of the four assessed outcomes (per both father- and teacher-reports): externalizing problems, hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms, and social skills. Simple slope analyses revealed a negative relation between parental supportive parenting and children's externalizing (father-reported) and hyperactivity/impulsivity problems (father- and teacher-reported) when the child's other parent engaged in low levels of supportive parenting. Similarly, paternal supportive parenting was positively associated with children's social skills (father-report) when mothers engaged in low levels of supportive parenting. Results are discussed with implications for including both mothers and fathers in early childhood research, intervention, and social policy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

We investigated the role of physical characteristics of kindergartens’ outdoor play areas in teacher-rated physical aggression (PAgg) among 423 children followed annually from ages two to four years. We used data from the Behaviour Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study which follows children from southeast Norway, a country where almost all two- to four-year-old children attend kindergartens. Nesting children in kindergartens, we found two significant associations after adjustment for family selection. First, children in kindergartens with more ‘secret places’ in their outdoor play areas (where they could play undisturbed) had more PAgg at baseline. Second, children in kindergartens with more adult supervision of their use of outdoor play material showed a less steep decrease in PAgg over time. If causal, these associations would suggest that children in kindergartens should not play completely unmonitored but also that teachers should not control children’s outdoor play excessively.

Objective:Supportive paternal caregiving is influenced by contextual factors, including maternal caregiving behaviors. Although longer periods of breastfeeding have been found to be associated with higher levels of maternal supportive parenting, it remains unknown whether the benefits of breastfeeding also extend to fathers' supportive caregiving. This study tested the indirect relation between the duration of breastfeeding and paternal supportive parenting through maternal supportive parenting.Methods:Participating families (N = 623) were from the Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study, a population-based longitudinal study in Southeast Norway. Path analysis was used to test associations between the duration of breastfeeding in the first year (parent report) and paternal supportive parenting (observed, 36 months), as potentially mediated by maternal supportive parenting (observed, 24 months).Results:After controlling for sociodemographic and birth factors, a longer duration of breastfeeding was indirectly associated with higher levels of observed paternal supportive parenting through maternal supportive parenting.Conclusion:The current findings suggest that the longer breastfeeding duration during the first year of life (i.e., infancy) might have important implications for both maternal and paternal supportive parenting in toddlerhood.

This study identified latent trajectories of physical aggression from infancy to preschool age and tested for (a) early parent, parenting and child predictor effects on trajectory membership and (b) trajectory-effects net of parent, parenting, and child predictor effects on Grade 2 social, behavioral and academic functioning. We used data from the Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study (BONDS), comprising 1,159 children (559 girls). Parents reported on risk and protective factors, and on physical aggression from 1 to 5 years; teachers reported on Grade 2 outcomes. We employed latent class growth curve analyses to identify nine aggression trajectories. In fully adjusted models testing simultaneously all associations among predictors, trajectories, and outcomes, maternal and paternal harsh parenting, child gender, and sibling presence predicted trajectory membership, which significantly predicted Grade 2 externalizing. Child gender had a pervasive influence on all outcomes as well as on trajectory membership. This is the first trajectory study that attempts to sort out which predictors are most proximal, more distal, or just confounded, with their relative direct effect sizes, and to link early paternal as well as maternal harsh parenting with children’s development of physical aggression from infancy to preschool age. Our findings underscore the need to include fathers in developmental research and early prevention and intervention efforts.

Although fathers are increasingly involved in childrearing, less is known about how parental stress is perceived among mothers and fathers separately. The present study investigated the construct validity of the PSS in a community-based sample of Norwegian father–mother dyads with a child aged 4. A total of 1030 mothers and fathers ( N = 515 dyads) responded to the PSS, which is a much used instrument that assesses stress related to childrearing across 18 items. Construct validity was investigated using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and the multitrait–multimethod approach (MTMM). The results revealed that six of the items showed extensive ceiling-effects for both parents, and were excluded from further analysis. Dimensionality was examined for the remaining 12 PSS items. The results supported a two-factor solution for both fathers and mothers, reflecting parental stressors (9 items) and lack of rewards (3 items). The MTMM approach indicated convergent and discriminant validity across traits (Parental stressors and Lack of rewards) and methods (father vs mother rating). We also explored the network of PSS items for mothers and fathers, and found both similarities and differences. Overall, the results of the factor analyses have implications for the use of the PSS. The networks of PSS suggest that some items may be especially important when addressing parental stress with mothers and fathers.

Whether high quantities of center-based care cause behavior problems is a controversial question. Studies using covariate adjustment for selection factors have detected relations between center care and behavior problems, but studies with stronger internal validity less often find such evidence. We examined whether within-child changes in hours in center-based care predicted changes in externalizing problems in toddlers and preschoolers (N = 10,105; 49% female; data collection 1993-2012) in seven studies, including from Germany, Netherlands, Norway, two from Canada and two from the U.S. Race/ethnicity data were only collected in the United States (57% and 80% White; 42% and 13% African-American; 1.2% and 5% Latinx). Meta-analyses showed no association (r = .00, p = .88) between hours in center-based care and externalizing problems.

ObjectiveThis two-wave longitudinal study aimed at increasing knowledge about levels of parental stressors and rewards among mothers and fathers of children aged 1-18 during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in Norway. BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic and infection-control measures have caused changes to family life. Managing homeschooling or caring for younger children while working from home may have posed significant strain on parental stress, negatively impacting the quality of parent-child relationships and parents' sensitivity to their children's needs. MethodWe employed data collected in April 2020 and April 2021 from the longitudinal population-based survey in Bergen/Norway (Bergen in ChangE-study). 7424 parents participated (58.6% mothers and 41.5% fathers). ResultsThe overall levels of parental stressors and rewards did not change significantly. Over the two time points, the factors associated with decreased parental stressors were being male, aged 40-49 years, having a relatively high income, and reporting initial difficulties with closed kindergartens or schools. For parents aged 18-29 years, the level of parental stressors increased. ConclusionThe study suggests that the overall levels of parental stress remained unchanged during the first year of the pandemic. Even so, the study also uncovered that younger parents represented a vulnerable subgroup. ImplicationsTo prevent detrimental consequences in the wake of the pandemic, it could be important to increase awareness and competence among professional staff in kindergartens, primary schools, and child health clinics targeting young parents and their children.

The present study assessed longitudinal relations between paternal supportive parenting in infancy (12 months) and toddlerhood (36 months) and children's observed self-regulation skills at preschool age (48 months) in a large sample of Norwegian families (N = 771; 48% girls, 52% boys, 28% experienced some socioeconomic risk). After accounting for child sex, socioeconomic risk (6 and 12 months), and observed maternal supportive parenting (24 moths), structural equation modeling revealed that observed paternal supportive parenting with children at 36, but not 12, months was independently associated with a latent factor representing children's observed self-regulation skills at 48 months. Further, a significant indirect pathway emerged such that paternal supportive parenting at 12 months was associated with children's self-regulation skills at 48 months, via paternal supportive parenting at 36 months. Results are discussed with implications for supporting paternal caregiving during infancy to promote children's emerging self-regulation skills.

We investigated pandemic-related stress symptoms during the first COVID-19 lockdown period in spring 2020 among parents of adolescents that were 11 to 13 years old in the study period. We also investigated whether parental stress symptoms were associated with family situation and family activities during lockdown. Altogether 147 couples reported about their own trauma-related stress symptoms following the outbreak of the pandemic. Among the respondents, 9.5% of the mothers and 10.2% of the fathers had scores over cutoff on the screener (IES-6) measuring stress symptoms, a non-significant gender difference. Scores on the screener were not associated with family contamination or lockdown consequences. Family activities during lockdown did not impact the pandemic stress symptom levels. Whereas, the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic pose a stressor to most people, it is unlikely to be a criterion A event for other than directly affected families.

Bullying victimization and trauma research traditions operate quite separately. Hence, it is unclear from the literature whether bullying victimization should be considered as a form of interpersonal trauma. We review studies that connect bullying victimization with symptoms of PTSD, and in doing so, demonstrate that a conceptual understanding of the consequences of childhood bullying needs to be framed within a developmental perspective. We discuss two potential diagnoses that ought to be considered in the context of bullying victimization: (1) developmental trauma disorder, which was suggested but not accepted as a new diagnosis in the DSM-5 and (2) complex post-traumatic stress disorder, which has been included in the ICD-11. Our conclusion is that these frameworks capture the complexity of the symptoms associated with bullying victimization better than PTSD. We encourage practitioners to understand how exposure to bullying interacts with development at different ages when addressing the consequences for targets and when designing interventions that account for the duration, intensity, and sequelae of this type of interpersonal trauma.

ABSTRACT: Objective: Early-life socioeconomic disadvantage is associated with both obesity and lower cognitive abilities in childhood. One theorized underlying mechanism is breastfeeding duration because breast milk contains nutrients that can promote healthy adiposity profiles and stimulate brain development. However, studies have rarely examined these potential associations with child body mass index (BMI) in high-income Western countries, much less investigated breastfeeding duration as a mediator of the relationship between childhood socioeconomic status (SES) and later child vocabulary. The current study aimed to prospectively examine associations between early-life family socioeconomic risk and both child BMI and vocabulary at age 4 in a Norwegian cohort and the potential mediating contribution of breastfeeding duration. Methods: The Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study (BONDS) followed 1159 families and their children from 6 months of age onward. Parents reported on SES and breastfeeding duration in infancy, and child BMI and vocabulary ability were assessed at age 4. Direct and indirect effects were estimated using a path model that adjusted for several demographic and perinatal covariates (e.g., parental nativity and birthweight). Results: Family socioeconomic risk was significantly and negatively related to child vocabulary but was unrelated to child BMI. In addition, breastfeeding duration mediated the association between family socioeconomic risk and child vocabulary, with greater family socioeconomic risk associated with a shorter breastfeeding duration, which, in turn, predicted poorer child vocabulary. Conclusion: The current findings suggest that longer breastfeeding duration is a viable target for preventatively promoting child vocabulary, especially among families at socioeconomic risk.

Abstract Videotaped observations of mother–child interactions in adoptive and biological dyads showed some significant differences in overall quality of interactions at age 2. The differences included both mother and child observed behavior during a free-play and teaching setting. There were no significant differences in adoptive and biological mother’s sensitivity/responsiveness toward their children, which has been documented to be important for children’s favorable social and emotional development. Taking into consideration the late establishment of mother–child interaction in adoptive families and the children’s adverse preadoption experiences, this result must be considered quite propitious. However, there were significant differences in both mother’s and children’s behavior. Adoptive mothers expressed less positive regard for their children in both settings and displayed more intrusive behavior in the free-play setting compared to biological mothers. Furthermore, adopted children showed less positive mood and engagement of their mothers in both settings and lower degree of sustained attention in the teaching setting than the biological children. Notably, the children’s age at adoption was not connected to either mothers’ or children’s observed behavior during the interaction tasks.

The parental stress scale (PSS) is a widely used instrument that assesses stress related to child rearing. Even though several studies have investigated the construct validity and reliability of the PSS, no consensus has been reached regarding which and how many of the original eighteen items that should be included, or a robust factor structure with satisfactory reliability. The present study tested the psychometric properties of the Norwegian version of the PSS and used the advantages of complementary exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses to investigate the underlying factor structure of the PSS items. Data stem from a community sample of 1096 parents from five counties in Norway with a one-year-old child. The sample was randomly split (N = 553/543), and exploratory and confirmatory analyses were performed on each of the samples. Using predefined criteria for the selection of robust items, results revealed a two-dimensional structure (Parental stressors and Lack of rewards) across 13 PSS items, displaying satisfactory reliability. Network analyses revealed differential associations within item constellations and with covariates. Implications of the findings and study limitations are discussed.

This study examined differential and mediating relations between hot and cool self-regulation (Mage  = 48.2 months; N = 1,155, 48% girls), first-grade (Mage  = 77.5 months) maladjustment (externalizing [EXT] and internalizing [INT] behavior), and first- and second-grade (Mage  = 89.5 months) academic competence (AC). Using teacher reported EXT, INT, and AC, partial support for the differential perspective was found in that only hot self-regulation was significantly related to EXT, whereas both hot and cool self-regulation was significantly related to AC. Moreover, hot self-regulation indirectly predicted second-grade AC through first-grade EXT, lending some support for the mediating perspective also. The findings contribute to an understanding of how self-regulation is related to academic and behavioral school adjustment.