This data paper presents the CHERISH (Climate Heritage and Environments of Reefs, Islands and Headlands) Project collection, deposited in the Digital Repository of Ireland (DRI). The collection comprises terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV) digital photogrammetry datasets, created to establish baseline 3D records of coastal archaeological sites and monuments threatened by climate change. Spanning five Irish study areas across counties Dublin, Wexford, Waterford and Kerry, the collection documents over 30 sites ranging from prehistoric remains to modern military structures. More than 20,000 digital objects drawn from 20 TLS and 34 UAV surveys have been published to date. All datasets are openly accessible, FAIR-compliant and assigned DOIs, with significant reuse potential for research, heritage management, education, public engagement and more. Beyond their original purpose of documenting heritage at risk, these datasets can be leveraged for a variety of applications, including 3D modelling, change detection analysis, virtual reality, and historic buildings information modelling (HBIM).

on the sand flats around North Bull Island in Dublin Bay, shipwrecks are often exposed, and loose timbers washed up on the beach on a regular basis. the area above the high water mark has grown since the construction of a harbor wall in 1824 that blocked sand movement around the bay. There are over 150 historical records of wrecks, with 44 more precisely located from maps, charts, and surveys, although the vessels’ names and dates are unknown. From 2017 to 2023, the CHERISH (Climate, Heritage and Environments of Reefs, Islands, and Headlands) 6-year European-funded Ireland-Wales project has been developing field methodologies and toolkits to record, monitor, and manage threatened cultural heritage in dynamic environments. Archival research has been conducted to learn why the area was a concentration of wrecking and identify the wrecks. Archaeological survey, beach profiles, and magnetometer survey has revealed the changing seasonal extent of features on the intertidal zone and shifting location of wreckage after storms.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming landscape archaeology by enabling the automated analysis of high-resolution datasets, such as airborne laser scanning (ALS). The Automatic Detection of Archaeological Features (ADAF) tool is an example of the potential of AI to streamline the identification of subtle surface features and demonstrate their value in uncovering and understanding archaeological landscapes. By improving the detection of archaeological sites, the ADAF plays a crucial role in the research, management and preservation of cultural heritage.ADAF uses advanced AI models, including convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for semantic segmentation and object detection, to detect features in ALS datasets. The tool has been trained on a large archive of ALS data from Ireland and processes visualised inputs to detect patterns indicative of archaeological structures. The workflow integrates pre-processing with the Relief Visualisation Toolbox, inference with trained AI models and post-processing to refine the results to ensure reliable outputs with minimal false positives.Designed with accessibility in mind, ADAF features an intuitive user interface that removes the barriers traditionally associated with AI-driven analyses. Users can process ALS data and export GIS-compatible results without the need for specialised knowledge, making the tool suitable for a wide audience. This approach democratises the use of AI in landscape archaeology and extends its utility to professionals and researchers in the field.Tests with Irish ALS datasets have shown that ADAF is able to detect both known and previously unrecognised archaeological features in the landscape, while enhancing the spatial accuracy of identified sites. By automating complex data analysis, ADAF underlines the efficiency, precision and scalability of AI in landscape archaeology. In addition, the tool contributes to the preservation of cultural heritage by identifying sites that would otherwise remain undiscovered and enabling their preservation and integration into cultural heritage management strategies.ADAF represents a significant advance in the application of AI in landscape archaeology, providing a powerful and accessible solution for surface feature recognition. Its development underlines the transformative potential of AI to revolutionise the study and interpretation of archaeological landscapes.

In March 2023 the EU-funded CHERISH project published its free user-guide and methodology for investigating heritage and climate change in the coastal and maritime environment (Barker and Corns 2023). This paper provides an overview of the publication, specifically the CHERISH toolkit - the 15 approaches employed by the multi-disciplinary project to investigate at-risk heritage sites in Wales and Ireland. Using the eroding coastal hillfort of Dinas Dinlle in Wales as a case study, the toolkit which combines air, land and sea-based investigation techniques is highlighted. This article will assist users going forward in identifying relevant approaches to the study of their own at-risk sites. It is relevant to a wide-ranging audience anywhere in the world, taking into consideration a variety of requirements such as the environment, budget, and outputs. Ym mis Mawrth 2023, cyhoeddodd prosiect CHERISH a ariennir gan yr UE ei fethodoleg a'i ganllaw am ddim i ddefnyddwyr ar gyfer ymchwilio i dreftadaeth a'r newid yn yr hinsawdd yn yr amgylchedd arfordirol ac arforol (Barker and Corns 2023). Mae'r papur hwn yn rhoi trosolwg o'r cyhoeddiad, ac yn benodol o becyn cymorth CHERISH - y 15 dull a ddefnyddir gan y prosiect amlddisgyblaethol i ymchwilio i safleoedd treftadaeth sydd mewn perygl yng Nghymru ac Iwerddon. Gan ddefnyddio bryngaer arfordirol Dinas Dinlle sy'n erydu fel astudiaeth achos, rhoddir sylw i'r pecyn cymorth sy'n cyfuno technegau ymchwilio o'r awyr, y tir a'r m & ocirc;r. Bydd y papur hwn yn cynorthwyo defnyddwyr yn y dyfodol i adnabod dulliau perthnasol o astudio eu safleoedd nhw sydd mewn perygl. Mae'n berthnasol i gynulleidfa eang ym mhob cwr o'r byd, ac mae'n ystyried amrywiaeth o ofynion megis yr amgylchedd, y gyllideb ac allbynnau.

Coastal heritage and archaeological sites are part of a complex system of socioenvironmental processes whose conditions are placed at risk from increasing climate-change pressures and impacts. Cultural-heritage managers are working to increase understanding of these pressures and create ways to assess, mitigate, and/or adapt to change. Coastal-zone assessments (CZA) are a recognized methodology in several national management plans to gather detailed data in order to provide an informed assessment of current resources and any associated hazards and risks. A collaborative and innovative partnership is seeking to expand on current CZA models by integrating social, historical, and geomorphological criteria into archaeological site assessment, with aims toward the development of a resource-priority index for coastal-heritage managers in Ireland.

This article aims to summarise the current situation regarding digital archaeological archives in Ireland.

This paper presents and discusses the preliminary results of a small scale visualisation project as part of which the low-cost LiDAR scanner that now comes as standard with the iPad Pro was used in conjunction with both the Arctec Leo structured light scanner and photogrammetric survey methods to record, analyse and present the recently excavated remains of a Neolithic passage tomb at Dowth Hall, Co, Meath, Ireland. It considers the ease and speed with which the small to medium scale structural components found here can be scanned or photographed, meshed, and textured using each approach and further explores whether the outputs produced in each case might be used to support and enhance each other.

Digitization and virtual representation of archaeology and architectural heritage potentially connects tangible and intangible cultural assets allowing for recording, conserving, and documenting cultural heritage. Process workflow, case study, and design framework are presented for virtual historic centers intended for archiving, storage, and dissemination of heritage knowledge and information. The process commences with remote sensing and data capturing technologies such as terrestrial and aerial laser scanning, Global Positioning System (GPS), and digital photogrammetry. The resultant survey data is enriched with new methods for 3D modelling of historic environments based on heritage geographic information systems (HGIS) and historic building information modelling (HBIM). The enhancement of 3D data with semantic attributes as intelligent virtual representation of historic environments allows multiple user scenarios ranging from engineering conservation to education and knowledge extraction in addition to object visualization. Open access computing systems for large data management and dissemination are now being considered; these are based on game engine platforms and Oracle and PostgreSQL spatial databases, which are used for managing large datasets.

The change and restrictions in how we react with cultural heritage because of the COVID-19 pandemic has created an urgency in advancing remote and digital access to objects and sites. This paper outlines the process for developing Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) using digital recording and modelling of architectural heritage and archaeology. Virtual Reality (VR) software, game engine platforms and WEB platforms are outlined which can be applied to represent heritage sites in addition to emerging screen based technological learning systems. The application Historic Building Information Modelling (HBIM) and Game Engine Platforms for creating Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) is also examined. The design-theory based on Virtual Learning Objects for cultural heritage is explored. Two case studies are explored for their potential to create Virtual Heritage Learning Environments. Finally, a design framework is proposed for developing Virtual Heritage Learning Environments.

The Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe (INSPIRE) Directive (2007) requires public organisations across Europe to share environmentally-related spatial datasets to support decision making and management of the environment. Despite the environmental focus of INSPIRE, it offers limited guidance for archaeological datasets. Most primary data is created outside, but ultimately curated within, the public sector. As spatial evidence from fieldwork activities is not considered by the Directive, it overlooks a range of barriers to sharing data, such as project-based fieldwork, a lack of data standards, and formatting and licencing variations. This paper submits that these challenges are best addressed through the formalised management of primary research data through an archaeological Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI). SDIs deliver more efficient data management and release economic value by saving time and money. Better stewardship of archaeological data will also lead to more informed research and stewardship of the historic environment. ARIADNE already provides a digital infrastructure for research data, but the landscape and spatial component has been largely overlooked. However, rather than developing a separate solution, the full potential of spatial data from archaeological research can and should be realised through ARIADNE.

Promontory forts are an understudied but distinctive maritime archaeological feature from the Iron Age to the early medieval period from northern Spain to Scotland. Their coastal location renders them susceptible to erosion and loss to history, a situation exacerbated by increased storm frequency and sea level rise. Reconstruction of their original form is important to determine their role in the society of the time. This paper concentrates on a particularly notable group of promontory forts along the Copper Coast of Co. Waterford, where traces of up to 32 remain today within a 24 km stretch of coastline. The methodology has involved using oral tradition, historical records and field survey. This has been enhanced by aerial survey using drones and light aircraft. This paper models the data to estimate areas eroded and show how forts were once significantly larger and dominated coastal resources with an economy of farming, fishing, mining and trading. This paper calculates a likely erosion rate of 4–5 cm/yr and anticipates the last remains to be lost in 350 years, perhaps sooner with climate change.

As a partner in the EU co-funded 3D-ICONS project, the Discovery Programme undertook the 3D documentation of some of the most iconic cultural heritage sites in Ireland. This pan-European project aimed to establish a complete pipeline for the production of 3D replicas of archaeological monuments and historic buildings, and to publish the content to Europeana for public access. The list of Irish icons range from wider cultural landscapes to smaller ornately carved stones and includes a wide range of chronological periods: from Neolithic rock art from 2500 BC to Derry's 17th-century fortifications. The primary digitisation methods include airborne laser scanning (ALS), phase-based terrestrial laser scanning (Faro Focus 3D) and close range structured light scanning (Artec EVA). These are now mainstream approaches for surveying historic landscapes, structures and objects, generating precise, high-resolution point cloud data, primarily for viewing and interaction in proprietary software applications. The challenge was to convert these complex high-volume datasets into textured 3D models, retaining the geometric integrity of the original data. The article highlights the development of a pipeline to produce a lightweight 3D model that enables the public to interact with a photorealistic model based upon accurate survey and texture data. 3D-ICONS ended in January 2015, but a new website 3dicons.ie was launched to offer continued access to the Irish 3D models and associated content and media generated during the project. The article will consider the impact of this online content, particularly how it has been used as a teaching aid in secondary schools and how this may be extended in the future. It will also demonstrate how content from the project has been remodelled to develop an interactive and immersive experience for the great mound at Knowth, a development in partnership with the operators of the Brú na Bóinne visitor centre.

The INSPIRE Directive (2007) mandates European Union countries to share environment-related datasets so that they can be easily accessed by other public organisations within their own and neighbouring countries to inform policies or activities that may impact on the environment. Key to delivering INSPIRE is the establishment of Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDIs) providing frameworks for coordinating the policies, infrastructure and standards needed to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain and preserve spatial data through discovery, view and download services by 2020. Archaeological information is inherently spatial yet, despite the environmental focus of INSPIRE, guidance is limited and ambiguous for archaeological datasets and consequentially there is limited engagement from data curators. Although Protected Sites is an INSPIRE theme, does it cover only those formally designated through legislation or include sites managed through legal or other effective means? INSPIRE publishes data to help inform environmental policies and if data is unpublished there is a risk it will simply be ignored. Complex modelling of environmental change through Ecosystem Services remotely consuming web services is already happening but the lack of published reference datasets from the historic environment compromises consideration of the resource in decision making processes. Development of SDIs for heritage can bring wider benefits for the profession. Too often fieldwork extents and results are confined to paper publications or reside in project archives. Consequentially we lack a spatial record of fieldwork activities. Although cultural heritage data often has a strong spatial component, the full potential of the geographies created through discovery, recording and analysis is far from being realised. Harmonisation and publication of spatial data to consistent standards through an SDI is an essential pre-requisite for mainstreaming the use of heritage data in the 21st century to get cultural heritage to work for Europe.

a partner in the EU co-funded 3D-ICONS project, the Discovery Programme has surveyed a wide range of the iconic cultural heritage sites in Ireland. This project aimed to establish a complete pipeline for the production of 3D replicas of archaeological monuments and historic buildings, and to publish the content to Europeana for public access. Challenges discussed include: making such high resolution data sets available to the public to enable online interaction and via the web, creating suitable and representative metadata and IPR frameworks for 3D cultural heritage data.

The EU co-funded project Advanced Research Infrastructure for Archaeological Dataset Networking in Europe ARIADNE aims to integrate data and services across Europe for the archaeological research community. The Discovery Programme has investigated data holdings and management practices in Irish archaeology, focusing on what information is available in physical and digital forms, approaches to preservation and accessibility, and the challenges and opportunities around dataset networking with Irish archaeological data. While significant work will be required to enable the accessibility expected by researchers now and in future, there is also an opportunity to approach the challenges of digital preservation as a community.

Although the INSPIRE Directive provides a roadmap and technical specifications for providing interoperability of spatial information created and held by public bodies across Europe, its relevance to archaeological and built heritage information is unclear. Whilst there is a clear need for access to information about the historic environment by a range of audiences actively engaged in the management of Europe's rich heritage, delivery of relevant services is restricted to a narrow interpretation of the Annex I Protected Sites theme that focuses on statutory designations. This paper explores business reasons for adopting a more expansive interpretation of what information should be considered as and distributed as part of the Protected Sites theme in order to support policies and activities that impact upon the wider historic environment. The paper also considers the range and potential of information created through investigation and recording of the historic environment, often at public expense or interest. The potential for data reuse generating savings, inspiring smarter working practices, and developing sustainable datasets is explored through case studies from Scotland and Ireland and proposals to establish a thematic geo-portal, web services and applications through the EU Culture funded project Archaeo Landscapes Europe (ArcLand), are discussed.

In Ireland the Discovery Programme has been pioneering the use of high resolution LiDAR data as a mapping and modelling resource for archaeological landscapes, working on a number of sites as part of its 3D modelling research interests. In general, the results have been well received, with the derived DTMs, DSMs and associated hillshade models having an instant 'wow' factor. As a result of this a number of government agencies have followed our lead, commissioning further archaeology specific LiDAR projects, and in some cases 're-discovering' data sets sidelined due to a lack of processing expertise. The paper will use examples from Ireland to show the exceptional quality of models available from high resolution LiDAR data sets, how they compare with 'normal' LiDAR models, and how they are enhancing our understanding of landscapes. However the paper will also consider the problems of data management and access to LiDAR data which are seriously inhibiting the ability of agencies to fully exploit their investment. This could result in reluctance to commission future projects. The paper will consider whether the development of spatial data infrastructures (SDI) for cultural heritage data could play an important part in resolving this problem, and ensure that the opportunity exists for such valuable LiDAR data to be consumed by as wide a user community as possible.