At the outset, it should be noted that the term biopsychosocial model was originally introduced by George Engel, G. L. (1977. The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine. Science, 196(4286), 129–136; Engel, G. L. (1980). The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 137(5), 535–544) because he felt that the traditionally embraced biomedical reductionist model in medicine was outdated in light of the newer advances in medicine. He emphasized that modern medicine needed to encompass a more dynamic system approach, which included different levels of organization that included not only factors related to the patient and physician but also other important sociocultural and lifestyle variables in a “systems theory” manner initially introduced in biology by scientists such as Weiss, P. (1969. The living system: Terminism stratified. In J. Smythies & A. Koestler (Ed.), Beyond reductionism. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co; Weiss, P. (1977). The system of nature and the nature of systems: empirical holism and practical reductionism harmonized. In K. E. Schaefer, H. Hensel, & R. Brody (Eds.), Toward a man-centered medical science. Mt. Kisco, NY: Futura Publishing Co) and von Bertalanffy, L. V. (1968. General systems theories: Foundations, development and applications. New York, NY: G. Braziller; von Bertalanffy, L. (1969). Chance or law. In J. Smythies & A. Koestler (Eds.), Beyond reductionism. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co).

In this article we offer a two-part commentary on Bolton and Gillett’s reconceptualization of Engel’s biopsychosocial model. In the first section we present a conceptual and historical assessment of the biopsychosocial model that differs from the analysis by Bolton and Gillett. Specifically, we point out that Engel in his vision of the biopsychosocial model was less concerned with the ontological possibility and nature of psychosocial causes, and more concerned with psychosocial influences in the form of illness interpretation and presentation, sick role, seeking or rejection of care, the doctor-patient therapeutic relationship, and role of personality factors and family relationships in recovery from illness, etc. On the basis of this assessment, we then question Bolton and Gillett’s restricted focus on accounting for biopsychosocial causal interactions. The second section compares Bolton and Gillett’s account with a recent enactivist account of mental disorder that tackles similar conceptual problems of causal interactions. Bolton and Gillett’s utilize elements of the 4E cognition, but they combine these proto-ideas with an information-processing paradigm. Given their explicit endorsement of 4E approaches to mind and cognition, we illustrate some key ways in which a more fleshed out enactive account, particularly one that doesn’t rely on notions of information-processing, differs from the account proposed by Bolton and Gillett.

This chapter discusses AARP (formerly known as the American Association of Retired Persons), the largest nonprofit organization dedicated to tackling common challenges of aging individuals. As the number of individuals over the age of 65 steadily increases, the demand for more resources and services compatible with aging adults increases as well. Issues including health, hunger, income, housing, and social isolation are all barriers older adults may face. Within the contents of this chapter lie the efforts of AARP, the AARP Foundation, and their affiliates used to knock down these barriers and improve the quality of life for aging adults. The AARP Foundation is one of the four nonprofit charitable affiliates of AARP, specifically focusing to provide the basic standards of living for those older adults in need. Additional services and initiatives provided by AARP are legal aid, employment resources, and Disrupt Aging, a book helping older adults understand the aging process. Many other nonprofit organizations and their specific focuses in helping aging individuals are discussed, including the Alzheimer’s Association, the American Geriatric Society, and more. While there are many organizations dedicated to improving the quality of life of aging individuals, there will continue to be new challenges that arise.