There is an ongoing debate in anatomy education regarding the use of prosection versus student dissection in anatomy lab instruction. While there are plenty of studies comparing dissection and prosection, there are very few studies on how prosections are prepared and how they are used in anatomy instruction. Furthermore, there is no consistent definition of prosection used in the literature. This study used an anonymous questionnaire distributed to anatomy educators internationally and asked for educator views on defining, preparing, and using prosections in various course settings. One-hundred twenty-five completed responses representing fifteen countries and sixty-seven institutions underwent a thematic analysis to describe major themes in participant responses. From responses, a definition of prosection was developed, and the major perceived strengths and weaknesses of prosection use were described. Furthermore, quantitative data regarding the prevalence of prosection use as either a supplemental or primary resource and details pertaining to the perceived expertise of prosectors was collected. This study demonstrates the extensive reach of prosections in anatomy education and sets a foundation from which future studies on unique prosection preparation and use can stem from.

Feelings of burnout in professional students have been associated with additional psychological morbidities and decreased academic achievement. Due to the large volume of content that medical students need to learn during gross anatomy courses, it is possible that anatomical self-efficacy may be a contributing factor to feelings of burnout. Anatomical self-efficacy is defined as a student's judgment of their ability to execute tasks related to learning anatomy and perform course activities (e.g., dissection). First-year medical students were invited to provide basic demographic information at the beginning of the semester and to complete the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory-student version (OLBI-SS) and the Anatomical Self-Efficacy Instrument (ASEI); at the beginning, middle, and end of the semester, they were enrolled in gross anatomy. Typical descriptive statistics for the demographic information were conducted, as well as, correlational analyses assessing if the information had a relationship with either anatomical self-efficacy or burnout. Female students were more burnt out than male students. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed that students' feelings of burnout significantly increased from the beginning of the semester to the midpoint and the end of the semester (p < 0.05). Linear regression demonstrated a predictive relationship between anatomical self-efficacy and burnout (p < 0.05) at all three measurement points in which lower self-efficacy was predictive of increased feelings of burnout.

Upon entering graduate or professional school, students are often overwhelmed by the robust amount of information being delivered and the short time frame in which they are expected to learn the content. Students who lack sufficient study skills and time management techniques typically struggle to adapt to the heightened demands of graduate school. However, students who are self-regulated learners possess the skills to adequately manage their time and monitor their own learning. Self-regulated learning is the ability to set learning goals, plan study time, and assess learning. At the University of Mississippi Medical Center, there is a one-year Master's program-the Master of Science in Biomedical Sciences (MS-BMS)-intended for students who are pursuing a future career in healthcare. This program introduces students to the coursework often encountered within the first year of medical or dental school, and the academic demands of the program prepare them for the heightened rigor of professional school. This study (IRB Protocol 2020V0105) sought to describe the study strategies and time management techniques of students enrolled in the MS-BMS Gross Anatomy course. Students who consented to participate in the study (n=84) were asked to complete study logs documenting when, how long, where, and how they studied. In addition, students were asked to complete reflection questions both prior to and following each exam. These questions prompted students to reflect on how they were preparing for upcoming exams, what strategies worked well in their exam preparation, and what strategies needed to be adapted or changed. The information provided in the study logs and student responses to the pre- and post-exam reflection questions underwent thematic analysis to establish codes that capture the time management techniques and study strategies of the Master's students enrolled in the graduate gross anatomy course. The codes were utilized to establish common themes to describe the predominating student approaches in studying gross anatomy content. Some students reported utilizing less useful methods such as rereading their notes, reading through the lecture presentations multiple times, and watching recordings of the lectures again. Other students implemented more effective methods like using flashcards, self-quizzing, and creating their own resources such as diagrams and charts. Student perceptions of the assignments were also analyzed, and many students acknowledged the assignments were helpful, held them accountable in their studying, and encouraged them to reflect on the effectiveness of their time management techniques and study strategies. The results of this study will be used to direct the implementation of future assignments geared towards bettering the time management and study strategies of this population.

Medical students perceive elevated levels of stress within their pre-clerkship years in part due to select curricular factors such as grading scale or method of content delivery (e.g. traditional or integrated). Medical students cope with these stressors in a variety of ways. Alcohol and nicotine use are among the top coping methods. There are many changes being made to the medical curriculum to alleviate this perception of stress and increase effectiveness of the curriculum. An additional manifestation of perceived stress is the exhibition of non-medical prescription drug use. Non-medical prescription drug use (NMPDU) of cognitive enhancement (CEM) and psychostimulant medications (PSM) (i.e. Adderall) is associated with elevated perceived levels of stress within both the undergraduate college and practicing physician populations. The prevalence of non-medical prescription drug use of CEM/PSMs among medical students is scarcely documented, while the perception of stress is heavily documented. This pilot study sought to address this gap in the literature by describing the prevalence of NMPDU of CEM/PSMs among first year medical students at an American allopathic institution in addition to perceived stress levels and the potential factors contributing to it. Ten students (less than 10% response rate) completed a questionnaire regarding CEM/PSM use, alcohol and nicotine use, sleep and study habits, and perceived stress. Student responses indicated presence of CEM/PSM use, with four of those students reporting non-prescription use. "School" was the top reason for taking CEM/PSMs and the number one contributor to perceived stress. Additionally, half of the respondents reported an increase in use within their first year of medical school. The results, while limited, confirm presence of NMPDU of CEM/PSMs within this population, with potential correlations with levels of perceived academic stress. This work provides initial insights from which future work can build to analyze the relationship between NMPDU and curricular factors which may shed light on additional benefits to curricular redesign or evidence to necessitate proactive measures to prevent the phenomenon of NMPDU within the medical student population.

The purpose of a curriculum is to produce individuals with proficiency in content knowledge, ability to apply knowledge, and eventually become experts in a given field. One theory of how students transition into thinking like an expert is through the acquisition of threshold concepts. Threshold concepts are pieces of knowledge in a field that, once understood, produce a qualitative shift in a student's thinking and increases their potential to become an expert in that field. There is sparse research in threshold concepts in medical education, and most of the current literature either focuses on aspects of clinical practice or serves as a discussion piece with no empirical evidence. There are even fewer studies that attempt to identify the threshold concepts for understanding the scientific principles that underlie medicine as a field, and these studies often rely only on expert opinions. This is a shortcoming since experts in undergraduate medical education, often Ph.D. researchers, have a very different perspective than the medical student currently grappling with the scientific concepts for the first time. This study aims to address this gap in the literature by conducting focus groups with medical students in all four years of undergraduate medical education (M1-M4) at a large allopathic medical school to examine which concepts students identify as threshold concepts in medical education for understanding the human biology. All curricular years were included determine the student perspectives at each stage of undergraduate medical education and capture any potential shifts throughout the medical curriculum in the clinical and pre-clinical years. Sessions were semi-structured and asked questions that inquired about the threshold concepts for understanding the human biology for medical practice. Focus group sessions were recorded, transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis. Three M4 students, ten M3 students, nine M2 students and four M1 students participated in focus groups. At the present time, data are still undergoing thematic analysis. Thus far, the major codes emerging pertain to cardiovascular, pulmonary, renal physiology and neurobiology as potential threshold concepts. Students also identified as pathology as a potential threshold concept since it integrates the knowledge they have previously learned and applies it to medical practice. A theme that appears to be emerging is the importance of hands-on patient/clinical experience to push students through the threshold into understanding a particular scientific concept. As the analysis of the data is completed, the results of this study will offer insight for medical educators on how to adapt their curricula to better suit the needs of their students. This may include further integration of basic science and clinical education, providing students opportunities to work with patients earlier in their education and/or shifting the emphasis to the most clinically relevant systems.

New doctoral programs have recently emerged that seek to meet the rising demand for high quality anatomy educators. These programs often include both a research and teaching component, and students have the opportunity to be a teaching assistant for various courses. Graduate students typically do not have the opportunity to gain experience as a course director prior to graduation, although they may find themselves in the role of course director as they start their first faculty position. However, at Indiana University Bloomington, there is an optional 1-credit hour study skills course, MSCI M100: Improving Learning Skills in Anatomy (M100) that is directed solely by graduate students enrolled in the Anatomy Education track PhD program. M100 was designed to help undergraduate students develop study skills while concurrently completing an anatomy course. M100 has been taught every semester for the past 8 years, with various doctoral students directing the course for anywhere from 1-6 semesters. To understand how the experience of directing M100 may have influenced these individuals and their future careers, the authors conducted a phenomenological study (IRB Protocol 2018-0214). Seven individuals who taught M100 at least once participated in semi-structured interviews, describing their first-person experience as the course director. The interviews were transcribed, and thematic analysis was completed in which each transcript was read and coded by both authors. Upon assessing these codes, four main themes emerged from the interviews. Individuals who taught M100 learned to be flexible, autonomous, student-centered, and the impact of this experience went beyond the scope of this course. Teaching M100 helped shape these individuals as educators by allowing them to determine how to best structure a course through trial and error. Interviewees also commented that they learned how to better interact with students, and they gained a better understanding of which learning activities are best to implement, as well as how to effectively implement them. In addition, teaching M100 allowed them to experiment with their own teaching and educational research interests, better honing their skills as developing scholars and shaping the way they now instruct courses as faculty members. The experience of directing a course as a graduate student seems to promote development of skills and knowledge needed as an educator beyond the experience of typical teaching assistant positions. It is an opportunity worth offering graduate students, when possible, to facilitate the transition to a teaching-focused faculty member.

In recent years there have been several anatomy education doctoral programs that have emerged to train future educators and educational researchers in response to the growing demand for high quality anatomy educators. These programs are still quite novel, which merits examination of experiences gained by students currently enrolled in or those who have graduated from such programs as a means for determining how to best prepare individuals to effectively teach undergraduate and graduate/professional students in the basic sciences. This phenomenological study (IRB Protocol 2018‐0214) aimed to examine the experiences of individuals who, as graduate students, taught an optional 1‐credit hour learning skills course to undergraduate anatomy students. This course, MSCI M100, was designed to guide undergraduate students in developing effective study skills that would aid them as they concurrently complete an anatomy course. Seven individuals took part in a semi‐structured interview and their first‐person experience gained through teaching the undergraduate study skills course was described. Each of the individuals taught the course at least once during their time as a graduate student. Once the interviews were transcribed, thematic analysis of the interview transcripts was completed in which the transcripts were read and coded. These codes were further refined to capture common themes among the participants’ experience in teaching this course. Thorough investigation of the experiences these individuals gained when they taught MSCI M100 will help to determine the impact teaching this course has had in shaping these individuals as future educators in undergraduate or professional schools, and whether teaching this course, or similar courses, is a valuable experience that could be recommended for students in other (similar) programs.

In response to decreasing anatomy lab contact hours, some anatomy courses are using prosections in order to maintain the benefits of utilizing human cadaveric donors while reducing student lab time. This change has spurred an ongoing debate amongst anatomy educators regarding the best method of anatomy instruction: student dissection or use of prosection? A missing piece in this debate is information on what methods of preparation and use of prosections will provide the best student outcomes. There are a variety of ways to prepare prosections for educational use that potentially influence their effectiveness as teaching tools. While there is plenty of literature comparing dissection and prosection, there are no studies examining how prosections are prepared and used in anatomy instruction. In this IRB approved study, an anonymous survey will be distributed online to anatomy educators to determine how human cadaveric prosections are prepared and utilized in courses they teach at their institution. Anatomy educators from all levels of higher education and all program types will be invited to provide input. The aims of this study are to determine: 1) anatomy educator’s views on the use of prosection in anatomy education, focusing on how they define prosection and what they think the strengths and weaknesses of prosection use in anatomy education are, 2) the types of institutions and course levels using prosections for anatomy education, 3) how prosections are used as either a supplemental tool or a primary teaching tool, 4) how prosections are prepared for different uses, 5) who prepares prosections at different institutions, and 6) how it is decided that prosections will be used compared to other resources in anatomy education. Descriptive statistics will be performed on quantitative data collected from multiple choice questions and free response survey items will undergo thematic analyses to determine themes amongst responses. Finding out how educators are preparing and utilizing prosections is the first step towards determining how best to maximize the effectiveness of prosection use. The results of this study will lay the foundation and provide background information for further prosection use and preparation studies.

In 2002, a widely publicized report projected an anatomy educator shortage based on department chairpersons' perceptions. Now, 17 years later, the question lingers: “Does an anatomy educator shortage persist and, if so, how severe is the shortage?” Trends in the number, type, and fill rate of anatomy educator job openings were explored by analyzing job posting in the United States over the past two years. A survey was distributed to leaders of anatomy‐related departments in the United States, Canada, and European Union. Most departmental leaders who responded (65% or more) from the United States/Canada (n = 81) and the European Union (n = 52) anticipate they will have “moderate” to “great” difficulty hiring anatomy educators in gross anatomy, histology, and embryology over the next five years. Within the United States, the number of anatomy educator job postings at medical schools more than doubled from at least 21 postings in 2017 to 52 postings in 2018. Twenty‐one percent of postings between 2017 and 2018 were never filled. While the number of anatomy educator openings within the United States/Canada is perceived to remain in a steady state for the next five years, the European Union estimates a five‐fold increase in the number of openings. Departmental leaders prioritize anatomy educator applicants who have teaching experience (mean ± SD = 4.64 ± 0.84 on five‐point Likert scale), versatility in teaching multiple anatomy disciplines (3.93 ± 1.07), and flexibility in implementing various teaching pedagogies (3.69 ± 1.17). Collectively, these data suggest the shortage of anatomy educators continues in the United States/Canada and the European Union.

Burnout in medical professions is a growing concern, and as such, factors associated with burnout, such as stress, are being examined as early as medical school matriculation. By understanding the stress levels of medical students in their preclinical years, faculty can potentially assist students in the development of stress management techniques early on, enabling students to better handle the stress of medical school and in their careers as future physicians. A factor that has implications for how students approach the academic setting and how they manage stress is an individual's mindset. A person with a fixed mindset believes their intelligence is a static trait that will only be documented rather than be further developed. In comparison, individuals with a growth mindset believe they can change their intelligence through hard‐work. Growth mindset has been shown to be associated with greater academic success and resilience enduring stress.The goal of this study was first to determine first and second‐year medical students' perceived stress levels and whether the students held a fixed or a growth mindset. Additionally, this study aimed to determine if there is a relationship between perceived stress, mindset and academic performance during the preclinical years of medical school. In this pilot study, with IRB approval, first and second year medical students at a regional campus of a large Midwestern medical school completed the Perceived Stress scale, a 10 question Likert‐type inventory, as well as a 20 question Likert‐type scale to determine students' predominant mindset (growth versus fixed). Additionally, the relationships between mindset and scores on NBME subject exams in the preclinical years and USMLE Step 1, as well as perceived stress scores and NBME scores and USMLE Step 1 scores will be examined. Preliminary results showed that 12% of students had a strong growth mindset, and 70% of students had a growth mindset with some fixed ideas. The perceived stress scale scores ranged from 2–38 (40 max), with an average score of 12.9.A better understanding of students' perceived stress and their mindset about learning in medical school can provide potentially useful insight for instructors into the mindset of their students, allowing instructors to help guide students through the learning process and managing the stress that often accompanies this difficult academic path.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Purpose In 2002, a widely publicized report projected an anatomy educator shortage based on the perceptions of department chairpersons. Now, 16 years later, with the number of medical and health professions programs higher than ever, does a perceived shortage of anatomy educators (AEs) continue to persist? If there is a shortage, how severe is it and is it a global phenomenon? Methods This study replicated and expanded upon the previously published 2002 report. Two surveys were internationally distributed to 1) departmental leaders and 2) trainees (i.e., graduate students and postdoctoral fellows) within anatomy‐related departments. Trends in the number and type of AE job openings were also explored by analyzing job postings within the US over the past 2 years. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate perceptions, historic trends, and future projections. Results The majority (51% or more) of departmental leaders who responded from the US/Canada (n=81), the European Union (n=52), and ‘other countries’ (n=26) anticipate they will have ‘moderate’ to ‘great’ difficulty hiring AEs in each of the four classic anatomy disciplines over the next five years. Within the US alone, the number of AE job postings for allopathic and osteopathic medical schools has increased from a minimum of 17 postings in 2017 to 25 postings (and counting) in 2018. While the number of open AE positions within the US/Canada and ‘other countries' is perceived to remain in a steady state over the next 5 years, the European Union estimates a 5 fold increase in the number of openings. Departmental leaders prioritize AE applicants who have teaching experience (90%), the ability to teach multiple anatomy disciplines (72%), and the knowledge/experience of employing different teaching pedagogies (65%). Through the eyes of most (67.2%) trainees, the current job market is perceived to be highly competitive. Conclusions Based on the perceptions of international departmental leaders and trends in documented job postings, the job vacancy gap for AEs continues to widen with the European Union projecting the greatest need for AEs over the next 5 years. Trainees' perceptions that the job market for AEs is competitive might be explained by a mismatch in how AEs are trained and the types of applicants departmental leaders are seeking. Support or Funding Information AAA This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal .

With an increasing demand for anatomy faculty members, a number of graduate programs have been implemented to train individuals to be able to teach the various anatomical disciplines. Such programs offer instruction in pedagogy, scholarly teaching and educational research. Although there are increasing numbers of masters and doctoral level programs that have emerged, anatomy education focused postdocs are nearly nonexistent. In this study, members of the American Association of Anatomists were surveyed to determine whether they perceived that a postdoctoral fellowship emphasizing educational research and pedagogy training in the anatomical sciences would be a worthy endeavor. Initially, a pilot survey was conducted, inviting 27 early to mid‐career anatomy faculty to participate. For the second administration of the survey, an open invitation was posted in a public forum on Anatomy Connected, a platform open to all AAA members. Follow‐up interviews were conducted with eight respondents from the pilot survey. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the survey results, as well as thematic analysis of the interviews revealed that most individuals, regardless of their own completion of a postdoctoral fellowship, see value in a well‐designed anatomy education postdoctoral fellowship experience. Perceived potential benefits include mentorship to enhance their own pedagogy, gain additional teaching experiences, and development of educational research skills. There are concerns regarding the funding support for such a position, as well as the potential exploitation of an individual in such a position. Still, as a whole, the survey and interview results suggest that developing anatomy education postdoctoral fellowships have a strong potential to aid the development of our future anatomy educators and educational researchers, particularly for individuals earning doctorates from programs that do not offer explicit training in pedagogy and/or educational research.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

While the terms “self-regulated learning” (SRL) and “self-directed learning” (SDL) are commonly used in medical education, they are often used incorrectly. This paper aims to clarify these terms by describing their origins and the implementation of these constructs in medical education as well as explaining their connections to other terms in learning theories such as self-evaluation, self-assessment, metacognition, and lifelong learning. The iterative cycles of SDL and SRL that are important to the learning process will also be illustrated, as a common understanding of SDL and SRL is necessary to guide the development of educational programs and interventions.

Anatomical sciences are foundational to the health professions, yet little is known about the qualifications of anatomy educators at the graduate and professional level in the United States. Moreover, there is concern that the number of qualified anatomy educators being trained may be insufficient to meet the growing demand posed by new and expanded programs in medicine and allied health specialties. The authors surveyed anatomists from across the country to (i) characterize the educational credentials of current anatomy educators and (ii) assess the perceived need for education-focused postdoctoral positions or formal mentorships to prepare anatomists for teaching-intensive faculty positions. To probe the survey responses more deeply, one-on-one interviews were conducted with eight individuals selected to represent a diverse sample of respondents in terms of institution, gender, and academic rank. Results indicate that 30-40% of educators at the graduate level and approximately 60% of those at the undergraduate level lack graduate coursework in histology, embryology, and neuroanatomy. Forty-five percent of respondents had completed a postdoctoral fellowship. Eighty-six percent replied yes/maybe to the question of whether an anatomy education postdoctoral fellowship would benefit doctoral graduates. The top 3 reasons for this recommendation were to (i) establish independent educational research, (ii) improve a publication record, and (iii) gain additional teaching experience. Notable weaknesses of education-focused postdoctoral training were related to finances, fear of exploitation, and undervaluing of teaching. Moving forward, postdoctoral fellowships and other forms of postgraduate training may represent a key strategy for training anatomists in the current educational climate. Anat Sci Educ 00: 000-000. © 2018 American Association of Anatomists.

There are issues concerning the amount of learning that actually takes place in the laboratory environment, and whether or not it is worth the investment of money, resources, and time. A laboratory protocol was designed to examine the human dive response, with the goals of generating multiple robust variables, creating a truly integrative laboratory experiment and improving lab education. The objectives of this exercise were to promote critical thinking, maximize collaboration, minimize social loafing and student engagement, promote critical thinking, and meet as many of the National Science Foundation’s core competencies and assess effectiveness in achieving these objectives. The dive response, which occurs during cold-water dives and voluntary breath holds, is a series of cardiac, respiratory, and vascular reflexes that conserve oxygen for the heart and brain. The protocol was designed to be performed easily by the 18 volunteers who participated in this study. Pre-laboratory survey questions asked participants if they understood the information from the literature review (12 of 18 strongly agreed, X2=29.22, df=4, α=9.488), understanding of the desired student learning objectives (15 of 18 strongly agreed, X2=47, df=4, α=9.488), and enthusiasm about completing the lab exercise (9 of 18 strongly agreed, X2=13.67, df=4, α=9.488). Students performed three separate breath holds, one out of water, one immersed in cold water, and one out of water directly after physical exercise. Students measured the following variables: length of breath hold, lung volume, carbon dioxide concentration in expired air, peripheral systemic oxygen saturation, pulse amplitude, pulse rate, R-wave amplitude, and QT interval. The drop in pulse rate was significant (p(2,9)=0.00652), making it a robust variable, with the average baseline pulse rate dropping from 87.2 bpm to 66.9 bpm during cold-water facial immersion. The other variables measured were not significant, including oxygen saturation and QT interval. The experiment was not deemed integrative, as multiple robust variables are necessary for an integrative experiment. Participants analyzed the measured variables data in order to answer a set of post-laboratory discussion questions. These discussion questions were given to each participant to assess if the students understood the mechanistic and teleological mechanisms behind the responses. Post-laboratory surveys asked students to report if they thought they had learned the information (10 of 18 strongly agreed, X2=17, df=4, α=9.488), if they believed the lab would be helpful for an upper level physiology course (13 of 18 strongly agreed, X2=33.67, df=4, α=9.488), and if they enjoyed the exercise and found it engaging (11 of 18 strongly agreed, X2=20.89, df=4, α=9.488). My objectives for this experiment as an integrative laboratory exercise were partially met. I have suggested modifications on portions of the exercise that were not successful. By incorporating these suggestions, this activity could become an exercise used to progress physiology education based on survey, discussion question, and dive response data collected.