Planetary spatial data returned by spacecraft, including images and higher-order products such as mosaics, controlled basemaps, and digital elevation models (DEMs), are of critical importance to NASA, its commercial partners and other space agencies. Planetary spatial data are an essential component of basic scientific research and sustained planetary exploration and operations. The Planetary Data System (PDS) is performing the essential job of archiving and serving these data, mostly in raw or calibrated form, with less support for higher-order, more ready-to-use products. However, many planetary spatial data remain not readily accessible to and/or usable by the general science user because particular skills and tools are necessary to process and interpret them from the raw initial state. There is a critical need for planetary spatial data to be more accessible and usable to researchers and stakeholders. A Planetary Spatial Data Infrastructure (PSDI) is a collection of data, tools, standards, policies, and the people that use and engage with them. A PSDI comprises an overarching support system for planetary spatial data. PSDIs (1) establish effective plans for data acquisition; (2) create and make available higher-order products; and (3) consider long-term planning for correct data acquisition, processing and serving (including funding). We recommend that Planetary Spatial Data Infrastructures be created for all bodies and key regions in the Solar System. NASA, with guidance from the planetary science community, should follow established data format standards to build foundational and framework products and use those to build and apply PDSIs to all bodies. Establishment of PSDIs is critical in the coming decade for several locations under active or imminent exploration, and for all others for future planning and current scientific analysis.

This paper considers how, since 1976, the International Astronomical Union Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements (WGCCRE) has made recommendations regarding coordinate systems and rotational element standards for planetary bodies that are needed for mapping and the planning, execution, and interpretation of observations.We recommend that the Planetary Science Decadal and Astrobiology Decadal Survey committee and panels (hereafter, the "Survey") should endorse the value of cartographic standards as provided by the WGCCRE, suggest the collection of community input to improve the working group's services, and describe how increased support would enable key improvements in order to achieve the benefits of enhanced return from planetary science data.

Abstract NASA's Voyager 1, Voyager 2, and Galileo spacecraft acquired hundreds of images of Jupiter's moon Europa. These images provide the only moderate‐ to high‐resolution views of the moon's surface and are therefore a critical resource for scientific analysis and future mission planning. Unfortunately, uncertain knowledge of the spacecraft's position and pointing during image acquisition resulted in significant errors in the location of the images on the surface. The result is that adjacent images are poorly aligned, with some images displaced by more than 100 km from their correct location. These errors severely degrade the usability of the Voyager and Galileo imaging data sets. To improve the usability of these data sets, we used the U.S. Geological Survey Integrated Software for Imagers and Spectrometers to build a nearly global image tie‐point network with more than 50,000 tie points and 135,000 image measurements on 481 Galileo and 221 Voyager images. A global least‐squares bundle adjustment of our final Europa tie‐point network calculated latitude, longitude, and radius values for each point by minimizing residuals globally, and resulted in root mean square (RMS) uncertainties of 246.6 m, 307.0 m, and 70.5 m in latitude, longitude, and radius, respectively. The total RMS uncertainty was 0.32 pixels. This work enables direct use of nearly the entire Galileo and Voyager image data sets for Europa. We are providing the community with updated NASA Navigation and Ancillary Information Facility Spacecraft, Planet, Instrument, C‐matrix (pointing), and Events kernels, mosaics of Galileo images acquired during each observation sequence, and individual processed and projected level 2 images.

Motivation: Geodetically controlled products, including controlled mosaics and Digital Terrain Models (DTMs), provide accurate and consistent basemaps that enable and enhance the science and exploration that could be performed by human crews on the lunar surface and they facilitate communication between engineers and scientists [1]. The use of consistently controlled base products encourages scientific collaborations by aiding strategic planning of data acquisition, supporting the production of geologic maps [2], enabling the accurate and reliable assessment of resources [3,4], and facilitating cross-discipline investigations. A consistent basemap also allows for more accurate integration of data from different instruments, such as visible wavelength images and radar [5,6], and ultimately can maximize the scientific return of lunar science investigations supported and enabled by Artemis. Reliable geodetically controlled products will specifically benefit both Phase 1 and Phase 2 of NASA’s Artemis program. During Phase 1, these consistent and accurate products will enable NASA to safely land human beings on the lunar surface near the Moon’s south pole and facilitate successful operations. These maps also benefit Phase 2, as the same map products should ideally be used both by humans on the lunar surface and by the ground crew and scientists with whom they are communicating to minimize miscommunications and ensure efficient and accurate transfer of vital, potentially life-saving, information. Existing USGS ASC Products: The USGS Astrogeology Science Center (ASC) has produced accurate photogrammetrically corrected mosaics and DTMs using data from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) and the Apollo panoramic cameras for the Lunar Mapping Modeling Project (LMMP) [7-9] and as part of research supported by the NASA Lunar Science Institute [NLSI]. In addition, the ASC has developed geodetically controlled LRO MiniRF S-band monostatic radar mosaics of both lunar poles in two look directions, as well as smaller mosaics of Chandrayaan-1 Mini-SAR data [5]. Controlled mosaic for the South Pole and Malapert Massif region: As part of the LMMP effort, we used the Integrated Software for Imagers and Spectrometers (ISIS) [10] software package to create and evaluate control networks and resulting mosaics for the lunar south polar and Malapert Massif region using LROC Narrow Angle Camera (NAC) images (Fig 1). We generated control networks using automatic image-toimage tie point methods and sub-pixel registration (with human oversight) along with bundle adjustment software [10]. These networks were then tied to an illuminated model of Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) data. The resulting polar mosaics were orthorectified using gridded LOLA topography, and the Malapert Massif mosaic was orthorectified using the corresponding LROC stereo derived DTM. This methodology resulted in a control network and an orthorectified product that has broad applicability and is tied to the LOLA reference frame.

Our goal is to request input from the lunar and planetary community regarding issues of planetary coordinate systems and cartography standards. We begin with an overview of the work of the International Astronomical Union Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements. We briefly describe the operations and membership of the Working Group, some of the various uses of the recommendations it makes, our most recent (2018) published report and the recommendations therein, and the outlook for our next such report. We then consider several issues and questions regarding the future of the Working Group and regarding planetary cartography and planetary data spatial infrastructure in general. This includes possible near-term projects, how we and others might collect and consider community input and includes some ideas regarding possible outcomes or future work that will need to be addressed by the Working Group or other organizations.

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's (JAXA) Kaguya spacecraft carried a suite of instruments to map the Moon and its environment globally. During its extended mission, the average altitude was 50 km or lower, and Kaguya science products using these data hence have an increased spatial resolution. However, the geodetic position quality of these products is much worse than that of those acquired during the primary mission (at an altitude of 100 km) because of reduced radiometric tracking and frequent thrusting to maintain spacecraft attitude after the loss of momentum wheels. We have analyzed the Kaguya tracking data using gravity models based on the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission, and by making use of a new data type based on laser altimeter data collected by Kaguya: we adjust the spacecraft orbit such that the altimetry tracks fit a precise topographic basemap based on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter's (LRO) Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) data. This results in geodetically accurate orbits tied to the precise LOLA/LRO frame. Whereas previously archived orbits show errors at the level of several kilometers, the inclusion of altimetry greatly improves the orbit precision, to a level of several tens of meters. When altimetry data are not available, the combination of GRAIL gravity and radio tracking results in an orbit precision of around several hundreds of meters for the low-altitude phase of the extended mission. Our greatly improved orbits result in better geolocation of the Kaguya extended mission data set.

A planetary body’s global shape provides both insight into its geologic evolution, and a key element of any Planetary Spatial Data Infrastructure (PSDI). NASA’s Cassini mission to Saturn acquired more than 600 moderate- to high-resolution images (<500 m/pixel) of the small, geologically active moon Enceladus. The moon’s internal global ocean and intriguing geology mark it as a candidate for future exploration and motivates the development of a PSDI. Recently, two PSDI foundational data sets were created: geodetic control and orthoimages. To provide the third foundational data set, we generate a new shape model for Enceladus from Cassini images and a dense photogrammetric control network (nearly 1 million tie points) using the U.S. Geological Survey’s Integrated Software for Imagers and Spectrometers (ISIS) and the Ames Stereo Pipeline (ASP). The new shape model is near-global in extent and gridded to 2.2 km/pixel, ∼50 times better resolution than previous global models. Our calculated triaxial shape, rotation rate, and pole orientation for Enceladus is consistent with current International Astronomical Union (IAU) values to within the error; however, we determined a new prime meridian offset (Wo) of 7.063°. We calculate Enceladus’ long-wavelength topography by subtracting the best-fit triaxial ellipsoid from our shape model. The result is comparable to previous global models but can resolve topographic features as small as 5–7 km across in certain areas. To evaluate the spatially varying quality of the model, we calculate the point density (variable from 5 to more than 50 points per pixel), normalized median absolute deviation of the points within each pixel (typically less than 100 m), and the minimum expected vertical precision of each point (ranging from 29 m to 2 km).

NASA's Cassini spacecraft spent 13 years exploring the Saturn system, including 23 targeted flybys of the small, geologically active moon Enceladus. These flybys provided a wealth of image data from Cassini's Imaging Science Subsystem. To improve the usability of the Enceladus data set, we created a new, global photogrammetric control network for Enceladus that enabled compilation of a versatile cartographic package to support geologic mapping and other investigations. The network used 586 images in four image filters with a pixel scale generally between 50 and 500 m per pixel and a phase angle less than 120° and consisted of 10,362 tie points and 173,704 individual image measures, averaging nearly 17 measures per tie point. Least squares bundle adjustment resulted in a root‐mean‐square residual of 0.45 pixel, corresponding to root‐mean‐square ground point uncertainties of 66, 51, and 46 m in latitude, longitude, and radius, respectively. Using our geodetic control network, we created new global image mosaics, coregistered flyby mosaics to support geologic mapping, and updated pointing kernels for every image used in the solution. These products, including the updated pointing kernels, are available to the community through NASA's Planetary Data System Imaging Annex. The bundle adjustment solution also yielded independently determined shape information, resulting in radii within the stated uncertainty of International Astronomical Union values. The challenges of the data set, and the technical methodology described here are applicable to bodies imaged during multiple flybys with variable viewing and illumination geometry, including other midsized satellites of Saturn, and the Europa Clipper mission.

The integrated photogrammetric mapping system flown on the last three Apollo lunar missions (AS15, AS16, and AS17) in 1971 and 1972 incorporated a Metric (mapping) Camera, a high-resolution Panoramic Camera, and a star camera and laser altimeter. The U.S. Geological Survey’s Astrogeology Science Center, the Intelligent Robotics Group of the NASA Ames Research Center, and Arizona State University are working together in an ongoing collaboration to achieve the most complete cartographic development of Apollo mapping system data into versatile digital map products. These will enable a variety of scientific/engineering uses of the data including mission planning, geologic mapping, geophysical process modelling, slope dependent correction of spectral data, and change detection. After a brief discussion of the origins of the mapping system, we describe the Metric and Panoramic cameras, processing of the associated image and support data, work to photogrammetrically control the Metric Camera images, and future plans.

We point out some errors in the most recent report from the International Astronomical Union (IAU) Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements (Archinal et al. 2018).

This study presents an implementation framework for the development of planetary spatial data infrastructures (PSDIs) that support improved spatial data management, discovery, access, and utilization. The implementation framework is drawn from terrestrially developed theoretical models (e.g., product‐based, process‐based, and complex adaptive system approaches) and case studies from large‐scale, multiorganization, or transnational spatial data infrastructures. We adapt these terrestrially proven techniques for the planetary sciences and present a Europa case study. This case study includes a knowledge inventory of available foundational and framework data products, the availability and access mechanisms currently used to discover said products, the interoperability of said products in geographic information systems, a review of the policies and standards currently being used by the Europa science community, and discussion of the users a Europa PSDI would serve. This study concludes with a vision for a unified, cross‐organization Europa PSDI to support both current science investigations and future data collection efforts.