This study compared the comprehension processes and outcomes of 81 fourth-grade children when understanding expository texts and videos. All children were instructed to think-aloud while reading two texts and watching two videos, providing insight into their comprehension processes. Comprehension outcomes were measured with open-ended questions after each text and video. Results showed no significant differences in comprehension outcomes and underlying processes for text and video. Additional latent profile analyses identified four different comprehension profiles based on children's think-aloud responses, which were very similar for text and video. We found that 69% of children fell in the same profile in the text and video condition, suggesting that the majority of children tended to use a similar approach for understanding different media. To conclude, our findings provide empirical support for a unitary process view by showing that comprehension of our texts and videos was associated with similar cognitive processes.

Instructional videos have become a vital part of modern education, offering an engaging way for students to learn. They are widely used ranging from traditional courses to massive open online courses. This growing reliance has prompted researchers to explore the benefits of instructional videos for learning, leading to design guidelines for optimally designing instructional videos to foster learning outcomes. This special issue shifts the focus from theoretical design principles to practical applications of learning with instructional video, addressing a gap in current research. The six papers in this special issue examine two key aspects of instructional video learning: (1) the presence and characteristics of presented teachers, and (2) the role of supportive prompts and engagement strategies when the teacher is absent. Together, the contributions in this special issue offer new insights into video-based learning, impacting both educational practice and research.

Previous research suggests that learning from combined textual and pictorial representations is generally more effective than from text alone. However, when these elements are spatially separated, learners must mentally integrate them, increasing cognitive load. According to cognitive load theory, such split-attention formats are less effective than integrated formats, which cluster related information and reduce cognitive load. This study examined whether finger tracing enhances learning from spatially separated or integrated multimedia materials. 124 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in a 2 (Tracing: yes vs. no) x 2 (Format: split-attention vs. integrated) design. Retention, comprehension, and cognitive load were assessed. Contrary to expectations, no significant effects of tracing or format were found. These null results suggest that tracing and split-attention effects may depend on factors such as content complexity or tracing fidelity. The findings refine our understanding of boundary conditions for instructional design and guide future research.

Emotional design has increasingly been a promising avenue in multimedia learning research. Nevertheless, limited attention has been paid to the effects of two important emotional dimensions, which are valence and arousal. In two experiments we examined the effects of valence and arousal of background images in systempaced (Experiment 1) and learner-paced (Experiment 2) multimedia lessons. In both experiments, junior high school students were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions in a 2 x 2 factorial design with valence (positive vs. negative) and arousal (low vs. high) as between-subjects factors. For retention, in Experiment 1 (system-paced), those receiving negatively valenced images significantly outperformed those receiving positively valanced images. However, the results across both experiments did not reveal significant valence x arousal interaction effects. For transfer, the results in Experiment 1 showed that high-arousing images significantly outperformed low-arousing images when positively valenced, while low-arousing images significantly outperformed high-arousing images when negatively valenced. The results in Experiment 2 (learnerpaced) showed that negative valenced images outperformed positively valenced images when their arousal levels were high. Apart from learning outcomes, participants' cognitive load and intrinsic motivation were also measured, but in both experiments no significant differences were found regarding these measures. Implications and future directions were discussed.

The self-management principle holds that higher learning performance is obtained when learners actively use instructional strategies to manage the working memory load imposed by a learning task. Self-management studies with spatially separated but mutually referring text and pictures (split-attention examples) demonstrate the learning benefits of physical (e.g., annotation) and mental (imagined drag-and-drop) strategies. We investigated whether combining physical and mental strategies supports learning beyond a single strategy. Eighty-four participants studied a split-attention example with or without using a physical strategy and/or a mental strategy. Participants completed retention, comprehension, and transfer tests, and rated their cognitive load. Results showed that the combined use of physical and mental strategies resulted in lower cognitive load during learning than using the physical strategy and was more instructionally efficient compared to all other conditions. There were no significant differences regarding learning outcomes. Together, this suggests that combining physical and mental strategies is most supportive for studying split-attention examples.

Visual problem-solving is an essential skill for professionals in various visual domains. Novices in these domains acquire such skills through interactions with experts (e.g., apprenticeships). Experts guide novice visual problem-solving with scaffolding behaviours. However, there is little consensus about the description and classification of scaffolding behaviours in practice, and to our knowledge, no framework connects scaffolding to underlying cognitive mechanisms. Understanding effective scaffolding is particularly relevant to domain-specific expert-novice research regarding visual problem-solving, where in-person scaffolding by an expert is a primary teaching method. Scaffolding regulates the flow of information within the learner’s working memory, thereby reducing cognitive load. By examining scaffolding research from the perspective of cognitive load theory, we aspire to classify scaffolding behaviours as cognitive behaviours of cueing (which involves attention allocation) and chunking (the practice of grouping information, often in conjunction with prior knowledge), into a cohesive and unified framework. In this scoping review, 6533 articles were considered, from which 18 were included. From these 18 articles, 164 excerpts describing expert-novice interaction were examined and categorised based on cognitive strategy (cueing or chunking) and method of expression (verbal or nonverbal). An inductive category (active or passive) was also identified and coded. Most scaffolding behaviours were categorised as active verbal cueing and active verbal chunking. Qualitative patterns in excerpts were collated into 12 findings. Our framework may help to integrate existing and new scaffolding research, form the basis for future expert-novice interaction research, and provide insights into the fine-grained processes that comprise scaffolded visual problem-solving.

Research on embodied cognition acknowledges that cognitive processing is tightly coupled with bodily activities and the environment. An important implication for education is that learning can be enhanced when the brain, body, and environment mutually influence each other, such as when making or observing human actions, especially those involving hand gestures and manipulation of objects. In this narrative review article, we describe the evidence from six research avenues that can help explain why embodied cognition can enhance learning and instruction. Through the exploration of these six interconnected research pathways, we aim to make a significant contribution by proposing innovative directions for learning and instruction research, all rooted in the principles of embodied cognition. We establish a direct link between the six research pathways and embodied phenomena, both in the contexts of making and observing human movements. When making human movements, the research avenues explaining the learning benefits due to these movements are physical activity , generative learning , and offloaded cognition . When observing human movements, the avenues researching these phenomena are specialized processor and signaling . Lastly, the research avenue social cognition is integral to both making and observing human movements. With originality in focus, we also include research that has not been traditionally associated with embodied cognition or embodiment. This article offers comprehensive discussions, substantiated with evidence and influencing features, for each of these research avenues. We conclude by outlining the implications of these findings for instruction and charting potential directions for future investigation.

In this study, we present the pilot implementation of the ReSearching Identity Podcast Project, an intervention targeting the professional identity development of students with and without marginalized identities in higher education. The objectives were to assess the intervention's acceptability and feasibility, particularly focusing on its use of educational podcasting, and to explore preliminary effects on students' professional identity, including identity centrality and the connectedness with social identities (i.e., cultural and gender identity). We conducted a mixed method pilot study with university students (N=33; 88% female) in the Netherlands. Students completed online surveys before and after the pilot implementation, and students and their teacher participated in follow-up conversations. The results supported the acceptability and feasibility of the ReSearching Identity Podcast Project, with students and teachers appreciating the brevity of the intervention program, opportunities to learn about marginalized experiences of fellow students and professionals, and embeddedness in the curriculum. Also, students reported higher professional identity centrality and overall high connectedness of professional and other social identities after the intervention. We conclude by addressing the limitations, but also potential of the ReSearching Identity Podcast Project to address professional identity development with all students in higher education.

Default nudges-making the desired option the standard option-are often criticized for hampering autonomy. However, laboratory research suggests this expectation of autonomy loss is not reflected in nudgees' experienced autonomy. In this study, we investigated whether this finding translates to a real-world setting by implementing a default nudge to increase food donations in the supermarket (Experiment 1). Upon entering the supermarket, customers were asked to donate a food item for charity and were handed a shopping cart/basket that was empty (control) or contained a food item meant for donation (default nudge). Donations were collected after checkout, and customers rated their experienced autonomy of their choice to donate. We replicated this study and added a vignette condition portraying the default nudge to measure expected autonomy for the same situation (Experiment 2). The results show the default nudge reduced participants' expected autonomy but not their experienced autonomy, shedding new light on the relation between nudging and autonomy. Furthermore, this novel form of the default nudge was found to be successful in increasing food donations in the supermarket, further expanding the field where this nudge has been successful.

Nudging is a strategy from behavioural economics that subtly influences behaviour by changing the environment. Despite its recent introduction in education, no overview exists of what behavioural interventions are already practiced in education, and how these fit within nudging frameworks. In this qualitative study, we investigated what nudges are used in vocational and higher education by interviewing 33 teachers and 15 students, and conducting 11 classroom observations. We provide an overview of currently used nudges to promote learning behaviour, and distinguish between intuitive, didactic, and planned nudges. Results also show that teachers use nudging intuitively and based on didactic techniques, but are generally unaware of doing so. This provides opportunity for introducing explicit knowledge of nudging to augment teachers' toolboxes for designing learning environments. Future research can test nudges teachers already use in practice, and further integrate the behavioural and educational perspectives on nudging interventions in an educational context.

The split-attention effect posits that learning outcomes are negatively impacted when interrelated text and graphics are spatially segregated rather than cohesively integrated. This study explored how the instructional material's presentation size influences the manifestation of the split-attention effect. Based on cognitive load theory and perceptual load theory, we hypothesized that elevated information density in a compact presentation format would attenuate the advantage of integrated text and graphics, thereby diminishing the salience of the split-attention effect relative to a more expansive presentation size. University students (n = 146) studied a split-attention format or integrated format in either large or small presentation size. Results on retention and comprehension tests and extraneous cognitive load ratings revealed no effects of instructional format, presentation size or their interaction. The present results call for a more nuanced understanding of the split-attention effect and suggest additional research to explore its cognitive foundations.

Asking questions is vital for learning, yet students seldom exhibit this behavior. Given the increasing presence of online classrooms in tertiary education, it is much needed to examine ways to encourage students to ask questions and increase their engagement. Despite the critical role of asking questions to enhance learning, little is known in research on promoting this behavior. Therefore, in this paper, we empirically tested the effect of nudging - a novel approach in education consisting of subtle interventions to change behavior - in online classrooms in tertiary education on question asking behavior, student engagement, and grades. In Experiment 1 (n = 1011), the teacher's virtual background prompted questions (prompt nudge), while in Experiment 2 (n = 449), the teacher set a goal for the students to ask one question per session (goal-setting nudge). We found a trend towards a positive effect of the prompt nudge on questions, but not on grades. Exploratory analyses revealed this was driven by students who already asked many questions. We found no effect of the goal-setting nudge on any measure, nor any effect in either experiment on student engagement. The findings demonstrate that the prompt nudge can be a possible useful and easy to implement tool to encourage questions in the online classroom.

Learning from mutually referring but spatially separated text and picture (i.e., split-attention materials) is cognitively demanding. We investigated whether mouse pointing could support learning from split-attention materials in which the related elements between the text and picture were indicated by visual labels or not. One hundred thirty-two university students studied a text and picture about the human nervous system in one cell of a 2 (Mouse Pointing: yes vs. no) x 2 (Labeling: yes vs. no) between-subjects design. Results indicated neither mouse pointing nor labeling had a significant impact on retention, comprehension, and cognitive load ratings. However, there was an interaction between mouse pointing and labeling on comprehension scores, indicating that mouse pointing on labeled materials resulted in worse performance than mouse pointing on unlabeled materials. Eye tracking results revealed that both mouse pointing and labeling led to shorter fixation durations and less fixations on the text and more transitions between text and picture. Labeling also led to longer fixation durations and more fixations on the picture. These findings suggest that mouse pointing and labeling influenced perceptual but not cognitive processing.

Inference-making is a central element of successful reading comprehension, yet provides a challenge for beginning readers. Text decoding takes up cognitive resources which prevents beginning readers from successful inference-making and compromises reading comprehension. Listening does not require any decoding and could therefore offer a less demanding context to practice inference-making. The present study examined whether stimulating inference-making in a listening context is more effective and less cognitively demanding for beginning readers than a reading context. In three experiments, Dutch second grade children read two narratives and listened to two narratives. Inference-making was stimulated by asking them inferential questions during reading or listening and we compared this to a no-questioning control condition. After each narrative, we measured cognitive load and comprehension. It was expected that inferential questioning would increase cognitive load and negatively affect reading comprehension, but positively affect listening comprehension. The results indeed showed that inferential questioning increased cognitive load, but did not lead to differences in performance on open-ended comprehension questions (Experiment 1 & 2). When measuring comprehension with a free recall protocol (Experiment 3), we found a negative effect on total recall in both the reading and listening conditions. Taken together, we found no support for the hypothesized interaction. This raises questions about the effectiveness of inferential questioning for reading and listening comprehension of beginning readers, and whether listening is a good modality for improving inference-making.

Research on grit indicates that perseverance positively predicts academic achievement. Yet, the mechanisms through which perseverance might lead to academic success remain less explored, particularly in cross-cultural research. The current study investigated such mechanisms by examining the possible mediating effects of self-regulated learning strategies (control, memorisation, and elaboration) on the predictive relation of students’ perseverance on their academic achievement, in students from East Asian and Anglo-Saxon English speaking Western countries. The sample came from the OECD PISA study and included 24,352 population-representative 15-year-old students from Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Scotland, and the US. Results revealed that perseverance had a more positive association with achievement in East Asian cultures than Western cultures. Control strategy was stronger positive mediators of achievement in Western countries, whereas memorisation and elaboration strategy use and instrumental motivation more negatively mediated the effect of perseverance on achievement in Western countries.

BACKGROUND:Self-management of cognitive load is a recent development in cognitive load theory. Finger pointing has been shown to be a potential self-management strategy to support learning from spatially separated, but mutually referring text and pictures (i.e., split-attention examples).AIMS:The present study aimed to extend the prior research on the pointing strategy and investigated the effects of finger pointing on learning from online split-attention examples. Moreover, we examined an alternative pointing strategy using the computer mouse, and a combination of finger pointing and computer-mouse pointing.SAMPLE:One-hundred and forty-five university students participated in the present study.METHOD:All participants studied an online split-attention example about the human nervous system and were randomly allocated to one of four conditions: (1) pointing with the index finger, (2) pointing with the computer mouse, (3) pointing with the index finger and the computer mouse and (4) no pointing.RESULTS:Results confirmed our main hypothesis, indicating that finger pointing led to higher retention performance than no pointing. However, the mouse pointing strategy and the combined finger and mouse pointing strategy did not show supportive effects.CONCLUSIONS:Finger pointing can be used as a simple and convenient self-management strategy in online learning environments. Mouse pointing may not be as effective as finger pointing.

We investigated whether finger pointing is an effective cognitive-load self-management strategy to mitigate the split-attention effect during learning. This effect holds that learning from split-attention examples consisting of spatially separated, but mutually referring text and picture, is less effective than learning from equivalent spatially integrated sources. One-hundred-and-twenty-nine undergraduates studied a picture with accompanying text about the nephron in a between-subjects design with the factors strategy use (pointing vs. no pointing) and instructional format (split-attention vs. integrated). The split-attention effect was confirmed by results on a comprehension test and a combined measure of learning effort and test performance (i.e. instructional efficiency). However, evidence for the benefits of pointing was only found for retention performance (i.e. not for comprehension performance and cognitive load ratings) for participants who learned from the split-attention example (i.e. not for participants who learned from the integrated example). Replications are invited to examine pointing as a self-management strategy.

Class attendance is an important predictor of academic success, but students encounter behavioral barriers preventing them from attending. In this experimental study, we investigated a commitment intervention to improve online attendance among university students (n = 973) during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the experimental condition, we asked students to commit to attending all classes and divided this group into students who made the commitment and those who did not commit. The data was analyzed from a psychological perspective (the effect on the individuals who responded positively to the commitment request) and a policy perspective (the effect for all individuals that received the request). No intervention effect was found when comparing students' attendance in the experimental condition to the control condition, but students who made the commitment attended class more often than non-committing students and those in the control condition. Exploratory analyses revealed that the intervention effect was found in the course with lower attendance, indicating that a ceiling effect possibly prevented the intervention from showing results regarding attendance. However, exploratory analyses also revealed selection bias as a possible explanation for the effects. Additionally, the intervention backfired for non-committing students, reducing their attendance. Future research should focus on different strategies to improve online attendance.

The way people gesture impacts problem-solving performance. Particularly gestures that are incompatible with the actions required for subsequent problem-solving slow down problem-solving performance (i.e. interference effect). We investigated whether this interference effect holds if the task allows for only one type of movement (left-to-right movement) instead of a mixture of movement types. Additionally, we studied whether gestures compatible with the actions required for problem-solving facilitate subsequent problem-solving performance. Participants solved a Tower of Hanoi (TOH), then explained the problem-solution with gestures or did not explain the problem-solution, and solved the TOH again. During the second TOH, half of the participants solved the TOH in the same direction (left-to-right), the other half in the opposite direction (right-to-left). Results showed that compatible gestures resulted in faster problem-solving (facilitation effect) but incompatible gestures did not slow down performance (no interference effect). Our study shows that gesturing supports but does not interfere with problem-solving.

There is increasing evidence that learning manual tasks from dynamic visualizations (e.g., origami folding) is facilitated when human hands are shown or gestures can be observed in the visualizations. This study examined whether observing and making gestures improves learning about non-human biological movements (i.e., fish locomotion) and whether gestures that correspond to the to-be-learned movement are superior to non-corresponding gestures. Moreover, learners' visuospatial ability was assessed as a possible moderator. Regarding underlying neurophysiological processes, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to investigate whether gestures activate the human mirror-neuron system (hMNS) and whether this activation mediates the facilitation of learning. During learning, participants viewed animations that were supplemented with either a self-gesturing instruction (yes/no) and/or a gesture video (corresponding/non-corresponding/no gesture) resulting in six conditions (2x3-between-subjects design). Results showed that higher-visuospatial-ability learners benefitted from learning with non-corresponding gestures, whereas those gestures were detrimental for lower-visuospatial-ability learners. Furthermore, activation of the inferior frontal cortex (part of hMNS) tended to predict better learning outcomes. Making gestures did not influence learning, but participants observing corresponding gestures showed higher inferior frontal cortex activation if they self-gestured than when they did not self-gesture. Implications of the results for the design of instructional materials are discussed.