Manuscript writing is an essential process in research; it is the vehicle through which knowledge dissemination occurs from experimental findings. This manuscript aims to equip students, researchers, and professionals alike with the necessary skills and insights for publishing in scientific journals. Each section of a scientific paper is discussed: abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, and conclusion, along with advice on the order by which these are written. Various techniques are explored to best engage readers and convey research findings in a memorable and impactful manner. Lastly, adherence to journal guidelines is discussed, along with common mistakes made by authors when submitting to journals. The importance of clarity and innovation in conveying research findings effectively is emphasized. Practical strategies for organizing manuscripts and enhancing the overall impact of research publications are covered.

Brooding broiler chicks under continuous or near-continuous light is common in poultry research and commercial poultry production. Despite its prevalence, there is a notable lack of research to support its use. The current research investigated the impact of various daylengths (24, 20, and 18 hours) during brooding on broiler performance and physiological responses to the light environment. Broiler performance and physiological responses were assessed in four experiments comprised of ten trials. Control birds reared under continuous light during brooding initially exhibited higher body weight during the first week (P <= 0.05). Following the introduction of the dark period for the control groups on Day 7, the treatment birds subjected to dark periods during brooding overtook the control group in body weight. From Days 28-42, no differences in performance were observed between the control and treatment groups. No significant differences were found in feed conversion between treatment and control groups during any experiment. Corticosterone and superoxide dismutase were consistently unaffected by either lighting program. The introduction of a dark period during brooding led to higher baseline and nighttime elevation in melatonin levels in the treatment birds, persisting up to 35 days of age. Field trials conducted in commercial poultry houses further confirmed the research's findings, with no significant differences observed in performance or mortality when compared to control and treatment houses. This research illustrates that providing broiler chicks with a dark period from day of placement does not have detrimental effects on end-of-flock performance.

High litter moisture (> 25%) strongly correlates with higher ammonia and increased footpad lesions. Although there are methods to help reduce the occurrence of high litter moisture, such as ventilation and proper drinker management, these methods need to evolve due to increasing consumer demands and more stringent animal welfare guidelines. A potentially cost-effective method may be ventilating houses to maintain a moderate RH level (60% or lower) and increasing the amount of air movement (150 ft/min) over the litter surface through circulation fans. This field study examined the possible effects of this combination on litter moisture and footpad health. The combination (TRT) had the greatest impact during the first three wk of a flock. The mean litter moisture was below 25% during this period in TRT houses. While litter moisture in the control (CTL) houses (no circulation fans- same RH) was 30% or greater. During the first 21 d, in three out of the four study flocks, less than 10% of birds had signs of lesions in the TRT house compared to up to 29% of birds in the CTL house. At the end of the flock, birds in the CTL house had, on average, a 23% higher rate of severe lesions than birds in the TRT house. These findings suggest moderate RH and supplemental air movement over the litter surface (150 ft/min) can benefit litter moisture control and footpad health.

Estrone, 17β-estradiol, and testosterone are naturally occurring hormones excreted in broiler litter. With some potential for environmental concern from the hormones, understanding management practices effect on hormone concentrations is beneficial for the poultry industry. As the amount of hormones potentially introduced into the environment is directly related to the concentration at the time of land application, the purpose of this study was to investigate hormone dynamics in stacked broiler litter during the storage period before removal from the farm and/or land application. Stack temperatures and hormones concentrations were monitored at 15, 45, 75 cm, and 105 cm (measured from the stack bottom) in 6 different on-farm stack houses over 4 or 8 wk. Significant differences in temperature were determined by height and by stack. Stack temperatures during the first 4 wk ranged from 41.5°C to 54.5°C, and all stacks reached maximum temperature by 7 D. Highest temperatures were observed at the 45-cm or 75-cm height. Average stack temperatures correlated with the ambient temperature. Hormone concentration did not vary with height within each house. In 5 of the 6 stack houses, the concentrations of 17β-estradiol and/or testosterone significantly decreased after stacking for 4 or 8 wk (35 to 64%) with only one house showing a significant decrease in estrone concentration (72% in 4 wk). The percent change of estrone and 17β-estradiol mineralization during the first 4 wk was negatively correlated with the 7-D temperature of the pile (r2 = 0.80), indicating that the high temperatures observed during stacking may inhibit estrogen mineralization. In this study, hormone degradation decreased with high temperatures. Therefore, stack management favoring at least a period of low temperatures may help promote mineralization of these hormones and reduce any potential for introduction into the surrounding environment.

Campylobacter is a major concern for poultry processors, as USDA performance standards have become stricter. This study evaluated CMS PoultrypHresh™, a low pH processing aid, and peracetic acid using consecutive and sequential dip treatments to reduce Campylobacter in thighs. Thighs (n=3/treatment group) were inoculated with a C. coli marker strain (108) and each dipped into bags containing 1 L of treatment 1 for 6 s. Thighs were allowed 5 s to drip, placed onto foil for 60 s, and dipped into treatment 2 for 6 s. After 5 s drip time, each was placed in a bag with 150 mL buffered peptone water and hand shaken for 60 s; controls same procedure, no treatment. Rinsates were serially diluted, plated onto Campy Cefex agar with 200 ppm gentamicin and incubated microaerobically for 48 h at 42°C. Procedures were replicated 5 times. Significant reductions compared to untreated using consecutive dips of PoultrypHresh™ and PAA were 98.2% and 99.3%, respectively. Treatments of PoultrypHresh™ then peracetic acid reduced Campylobacter 99.2% from untreated thighs. Peracetic acid then PoultrypHresh™ showed significant reductions compared to all other treatments (99.9% from untreated). Treating with this sequence may allow processors to meet the strict performance standards on Campylobacter in broiler parts.

A series of experiments were conducted to measure the effects of adding antimicrobials for 2 d: cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), hydrogen peroxide (HP), and/or sodium bisulfate (SB) to water drinker lines of market-age broilers on water usage, feed consumption, and inoculated Salmonella retention during feed and water withdrawal. The following experiments were evaluated: Salmonella retention with CPC (Experiment 1), water and feed consumption with CPC (Experiment 2) or with CPC and HP (Experiment 3), Salmonella retention with HP (Experiment 4) or with HP and SB (Experiment 5). For Experiment 1, water usage in the CPC treatment pens was only 14% of control pens and had no impact on Salmonella retention. For Experiments 2 and 3, the water usage by broilers was depressed 40 to 97% compared to controls. For Experiment 4, the number of Salmonella-positive enriched crop samples was significantly lower for 50 ppm HP+ citric acid (CA) pens (17%) compared to control (100%). For Experiment 5, water antimicrobial treatments did not differ significantly in Salmonella recovery from the control for both enriched crops (65%) or ceca (82%). Neither CPC nor SB was determined to be effective intervention against Salmonella when added to drinking water during feed/water withdrawal. In Experiment 4, 50 ppm HP+CA was an effective Salmonella intervention in crops while broilers remain on water during feed withdrawal.

Commercial broilers are commonly exposed to gaseous ammonia (NH3) originating from degradation of nitrogen-containing excreta in the litter during the grow-out period. Ammonia concentrations in the air are higher in poorly ventilated houses and appear to coincide with the elevated incidence of respiratory disease occurring during the winter months. This study examined the effect of NH3 on the immune response to infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) vaccination and protection against homologous serotype challenge in commercial broiler chickens. One-day-old chicks were administered IBV vaccine and exposed to 30-60 ppm of NH3. At 28 DOA, birds were challenged oculonasally with a pathogenic homologous IBV, and protection was measured by viral detection, clinical signs, ciliostasis, and presence of airsacculitis. IBV-specific serum IgG and lacrimal fluid IgA titers, as well as Harderian gland (HG) immune cell phenotypes, were evaluated. Ammonia exposure was associated with an increased incidence of airsacculitis among non-vaccinated, challenged birds. Vaccinated, NH3-exposed birds were completely protected from IBV challenge. Ammonia had subtle effects on cilia morphology and function but did not affect vaccine or challenge virus replication and clearance, clinical signs, ciliostasis, tracheal histopathology scores, or immune responses. In the HG of vaccinated birds, the percent of leukocytes, MHC I+/MHC IIhi expression, IgM(+) expression, and CD8(+) expression was increased, while mucosal IgA and serum IgG titers were nominal. Non-vaccinated, IBV-challenged birds exhibited an increased percent of leukocytes, MHC I+/MHC IIhi expression, and IgM(+) expression in the HG at 5 dpc, followed by increased mucosal IgA and serum IgG titers and CD8(+) expression at 10-14 dpc. In contrast, vaccinated, IBV-challenged birds had a minimal increase in MHC I+/MHC IIhi expression, and serum IgG antibody titers in vaccinated birds increased rapidly. The results indicate that commercial broilers exposed to moderate levels of ambient NH3 are equally protected against IBV challenge if appropriately vaccinated, and the absence of robust immune activation in vaccinated, challenged birds suggests that the challenge virus was efficiently neutralized before establishing infection. In contrast, ambient NH3 exposure was associated with a higher incidence of airsacculitis in non-vaccinated, challenged birds, despite the apparent lack of differences in the immune response between birds in the NH3-exposed and NH3 control groups.

A significant point of entry for Salmonella into a processing plant is within the broilers to be processed. Prior to transport to the processing plant, feed (4 h) and water are withdrawn from the broilers on the farm before they are caught and cooped. During catching, an increased presence of dust in the house air is visible and may affect the presence of bacteria within the broiler’s respiratory tract. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of catching on the levels of aerobic bacteria (aerobic plate count [APC]), levels and prevalence of Enterobacteriaceae (EB), and prevalence of Salmonella within broiler respiratory tracts. To determine flock Salmonella status 1 wk prior to catching, broiler carcasses were sampled for APC, EB, and Salmonella by respiratory tract flushing and ceca were sampled for Salmonella. At 1 d prior to catching and when half of the broilers in the house were caught, broilers were again collected, transported to the pilot plant, euthanized, and sampled. In Trial 1, there were no significant differences between sampling times for ceca Salmonella or respiratory EB and APC. However, Salmonella prevalence in the respiratory tract was significantly higher at 1 wk preharvest compared to during catching. In Trial 2, EB was significantly lower during catching compared to 1 wk preharvest. No significant differences were detected in Trial 3. Based on these results, the presence of aerosolized dust in the broiler house during catching does not appear to lead to increases in broiler respiratory tract microbial contamination.

Research was conducted to evaluate the impact of litter Salmonella status during feed withdrawal on Salmonella recovery from the crop and ceca following feed withdrawal. In 4 experiments, pens of broilers in separate rooms were challenged with marker strains of either Salmonella Montevideo or Salmonella Heidelberg. Three d post challenge, a 12-hour feed withdrawal was initiated, and one pen of broilers was switched between rooms for each Salmonella serotype. In experiments 3 and 4, non-challenged broilers also were added to the Salmonella challenge pens. The litter of each pen was sampled before and after the feed withdrawal period, the broilers euthanized, and the crop and ceca aseptically removed for Salmonella isolation. Results showed that only the challenge Salmonella serotype was recovered from the litter in challenge pens where broilers were not moved, while both Salmonella serotypes were recovered from the litter of the switched pens. Salmonella was recovered from 56/80 crops and from 66/80 ceca of challenged broilers that remained in the challenge pens. The challenge Salmonella serotype was recovered from 50/80 crops and from 60/80 ceca, and the switched pens' litter Salmonella serotype was recovered from 19/80 crops but not from the ceca in broilers challenged with Salmonella and then switched between pens. For experiments 3 and 4, Salmonella was recovered from 19/40 crops and from only 2/40 ceca from the non-challenged broilers placed into the Salmonella challenge pens. The results from broilers that were switched between Salmonella challenge pens indicate that the recovery of Salmonella from the crop of broilers following feed withdrawal (on Salmonella-contaminated litter) appears to depend mainly on the initial challenge Salmonella (62%) and less on the litter Salmonella (24%) status during the feed withdrawal period. In contrast, only the initial challenge Salmonella was recovered from the ceca (79%) from broilers that remained in challenge pens or were switched between Salmonella challenge pens. However, when non-challenged broilers were placed into the Salmonella challenge pens and commingled during the 12-hour feed and water withdrawal period, it was possible to recover the pen litter Salmonella from the ceca at a low level of 5% (2/40).

Maintaining an environment that minimizes stress on poultry is a significant part of obtaining a healthy bird that reaches its full genetic potential. One challenge that producers face is preventing heat stress and maintaining performance in hot weather conditions. By keeping bird body temperature, which slightly increases from 39°C to 41.1°C as the chick grows and develops, in the normal range, the bird will continue to grow, develop and efficiently utilize the feed that it consumes. The focus of this chapter will be on the principles of poultry management that farmers can implement in their poultry houses during hot weather to prevent heat stress and maintain normal bird body temperature. Ventilation, evaporative cooling and management practices that influence the ability of the farmer to keep birds cool will be reviewed.

A function of bedding material in poultry houses is to absorb and release moisture. New bedding is commonly placed at inadequate depths in houses. Pine shavings are the industry standard for bedding material in the majority of the United States, but can be hard to obtain or costly. Alternative materials were tested for moisture absorption and retention. Peat moss and chopped wheat straw were found to absorb nearly 8× and 7× their own weight in moisture, respectively. Peat moss was then used in a broiler study and compared to fresh and used pine shavings for 6 weeks. Body weight was lower at d 7 for the used litter and peat moss treatment compared to fresh shavings with no differences at d 42. No differences in ammonia generation or litter pH were observed. Litter moisture was higher for peat moss through d 14. Paws were better in the fresh shaving and peat moss pens than used shaving pens at both d 21 and 42. Next, different depths of used and fresh shavings on footpad dermatitis (FPD) were examined. Trials 1 and 2 compared 2.5, 7.6, and 12.7 cm of fresh shavings or used litter, respectively. In Trial 1, 2.5 cm had higher litter moisture than 7.6 and 12.7 cm at d 21, 28, and 35 (P < 0.05). The 12.7 cm had better paw scores than 2.5 cm at d 21 and 35 (P < 0.05). In Trial 2, 12.7 cm had lower litter moisture than 2.5 cm at d 28, 35, and 42 (P < 0.05). The paws in 12.7 cm were better than those in 2.5 cm at d 35 and 42 (P < 0.05). There was little difference in paw quality and litter moisture between 7.6 and 12.7 cm litter depth in both trials. Peat moss may be an acceptable alternative bedding material and should be evaluated on a commercial scale in areas where it can be obtained economically. These findings suggest that broiler houses should have at least 7.6 cm of litter to control litter moisture levels and reduce FPD.

The freshly ovulated ovum in avian species is surrounded by a protein layer called the inner perivitelline layer (IPVL). The IPVL contains zona pellucida proteins and 6 distinct zona pellucida genes have been identified (ZPA, ZPB1, ZPB2, ZPC, ZPD and ZPX1) in the chicken. In the present research, the expression of the mRNA for ZPA, ZPB2, and ZPX1 was investigated in 2 lines of turkey hens selected for either increased egg production (E line) or increased body weight (F line). Theca and granulosa cell expression of the mRNA for ZPA and ZPB2 was also investigated in hierarchical and prehierarchical follicles from broiler breeder hens. Granulosa tissue was collected from F1 through F4 and F1 through F10 follicles in E line and F line hens, respectively. A one cm2 section of the granulosa layer around the germinal disc (GD) and an equivalent sized nongerminal disc (NGD) area was also collected from the F1 and F2 follicles from other hens from each genetic line. Granulosa and theca tissue was collected from hierarchical and prehierarchical follicles of broiler breeder hens. Total RNA was extracted from the samples. Minor groove-binding probes and primers for detecting ZPA, ZPB2, and ZPX1, were made for real-time PCR analyses. Expression of ZPA, ZPB2, and ZPX1 was detected in all follicle sizes from both genetic lines of hens. No significant differences in ZPA and ZPX1 mRNA expression were detected between the GD and NGD granulosa cells. However, the expression of the mRNA for ZPB2 was significantly greater in the GD granulosa cells when compared to the NGD granulosa cells in F1 and F2 follicles from E line and F line hens. In broiler breeder hens, the mRNA expression of ZPA and ZPB2 was greatest in the smallest prehierarchical follicles. The results suggest that higher expression of ZPB2 in the germinal disc area may be important for the preferential binding of sperm to this region of the IPVL.

The increased cost and decreased availability of pine shavings-the traditional poultry bedding material-has facilitated the need to identify alternative bedding materials for poultry growers. The objective of this study was to evaluate mixtures of pine shavings and an industrial wastewater cellulose byproduct based on broiler performance, paw quality, litter bulk density, moisture, and pH over a 6-week flock grow-out period. The experimental design consisted of 25 pens (40 ft(2) or 3.7 m(2) each) containing 55 Cobb broilers (0.75 ft(2) or 0.07 m(2)/bird) for a total of 1,375 birds. Five treatments of 3-inch (8 cm) depth bedding consisting of 0 (control with 100% pine shavings), 25, 50, 75 and 100% cellulose byproduct with 5 replications were tested. Results showed that the cellulose byproduct material performed comparatively to pine shavings in terms of the broiler performance parameters of body weight gain, feed efficiency, and mortality. Paw quality was improved during the early stages of growth on the cellulose byproduct material, but the improvement was not significant by the end of the grow-out period. An evaluation of litter moisture versus paw quality scores produced a correlation coefficient of 0.73, indicating a strong cause-and-effect relationship between increasing litter moisture and decreasing paw quality. Litter characteristics of bulk density, compaction, pH, and ammonia generation were not significantly different between the cellulose byproduct material and pine shavings by the end of the 6-week study. An economic analysis of the use of the cellulose byproduct material is still needed due to the reduction in initial moisture content that was required for the cellulose byproduct material prior to use as broiler bedding.

Ammonia in poultry houses lowers performance and may increase disease susceptibility. It has been suggested that NH3 should not exceed 25 ppm in poultry houses (Carlile, 1984). However, prolonged exposure to concentrations as low as 20 ppm can be detrimental to bird health and performance, when poultry remain in such an environment throughout the production period (Anderson et al, 1964). These recommended levels have been reinforced within a more recent study in which broilers exhibited lower BW gains when exposed to NH3 levels of 25 ppm or greater (Miles et al, 2004). Broiler feed consumption and feed efficiency has been shown to decrease during exposure to levels of NH3, ranging from 25 to 125 ppm (Miles et al, 2004; Charles and Payne, 1966; Johnson et al, 1991).

A study was conducted in South Georgia to assess the carbon footprint of poultry farms. The study included broiler grow-out farms, pullet farms, and breeder farms from one commercial broiler complex. Data collection included the fuel and electricity bills from each farm, house size and age, flock size and number of flocks per year, and manure management. Emissions were calculated using a greenhouse gas (GHG) calculation tool. The carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane (CH4) emissions were computed and a carbon footprint determined. Carbon footprint comparisons were made based on house construction and age. Based on these results, an evaluation of the mechanical sources of emissions showed that approximately 96% of the emissions from the broiler and pullet farms were from propane use, while only 3.9% of the total mechanical emissions from breeder farms were from propane use. On breeder farms, 83% of mechanical GHG emissions were the result of electricity use, while the pullet and broiler grow-out farms accounted for 2.9 and 2.7%, respectively, of the total mechanical emissions from electricity use. The data collected from the farms and entered into the GHG calculation tool revealed that breeder houses had higher levels of CH4 emissions from manure management when compared to emissions from broiler and pullet houses. Even though the GHG emissions from poultry production farms were minimal compared to other animal production farms, the different sources of emissions were identified, thereby enabling the farmer to target specific areas for mitigation.

The proposed colorimetric sensor of ammonia for the confined animal feeding industry uses the method of optoelectronic spectroscopic measurement of the reversible change of the color of a nanocomposite reagent film in response to ammonia. The film is made of a gold nanocolloid in a polymer matrix with an ammonia-sensitive indicator dye additive. The response of the indicator dye (increase of the optical absorption between 550 and 650 nm) is enhanced by the nanoparticles (similar to 8 nm in size) in two ways: (a) concentration of the optical field near the nanoparticle due to the plasmon resonance and (b) catalytic acceleration of the chemical reaction of deprotonization of the indicator dye in the presence of ammonia and water vapor. This enhancement helps to miniaturize the sensing element without compromising its sensitivity of <1 parts per million (ppm) for the range 0 to 100 ppm. The sensor underwent field tests in commercial poultry farms in Georgia and Arkansas and was compared against a scientific-grade photoacoustic gas analyzer. The coefficient of correlation between the sensor and the photoacoustic data for several weeks of continuous side-by-side operation in a commercial poultry house was similar to 0.9 and the linear regression slope was 1.0. The conclusions on the necessary improvements were made. (C) 2014 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE)

In this study, total RNA was collected from abdominal adipose tissue samples obtained from ten broiler chickens at 3, 4, 5, and 6 weeks of age and prepared for gene microarray analysis with Affymetrix GeneChip Chicken Genome Arrays (Affymetrix) and quantitative real-time PCR analysis. Studies of global gene expression in chicken adipose tissue were initiated since such studies in many animal species show that adipose tissue expresses and secretes many factors that can influence growth and physiology. Microarray results indicated 333 differentially expressed adipose tissue genes between 3 and 6 wk, 265 differentially expressed genes between 4 and 6 wk and 42 differentially expressed genes between 3 and 4 wk. Enrichment scores of Gene Ontology Biological Process categories indicated strong age upregulation of genes involved in the immune system response. In addition to microarray analysis, quantitative real-time PCR analysis was used to confirm the influence of age on the expression of adipose tissue CC chemokine ligands (CCL), toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, lipopolysaccharide-induced TNF factor (LITAF), chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 8 (CCR8), and several other genes. Between 3 and 6 wk of age CCL5, CCL1, and CCR8 expression increased (P = 0.0001) with age. Furthermore, TLR2, CCL19, and LITAF expression increased between 4 and 6 wk of age (P = 0.001). This is the first demonstration of age related changes in CCL, LITAF, and TLR2 gene expression in chicken adipose tissue. Future studies are needed to elucidate the role of these adipose tissue genes in growth and the immune system.