This study investigates how pondscapes, networks of ponds, and their surrounding environments contribute to supporting identities across diverse cultural contexts. Supporting identities is a non-material Nature’s Contribution to People referring to people’s sense of place, belonging and connection to nature. We draw on data on landscape features from 17 pondscapes across eight countries in Europe and South America, along with over 700 questionnaire responses. We assessed whether certain landscape features are associated with the perceived delivery of supporting identities and examined how personal characteristics, individual perspectives, and engagement in different activities shape people’s perceptions. Our findings indicate that the perceived delivery of supporting identities emerges from a combination of social and ecological factors rather than from landscape features alone. Although pondscape characteristics showed weak direct effects, pondscapes in warmer climates and with a higher proportion of natural land cover might be associated with a stronger sense of identity. In addition, a strong personal connection to nature and engagement in nature-based activities (wildlife watching, picnicking, hunting), were key pathways shaping perceptions, highlighting that identity-related benefits are context dependent and socially mediated. By integrating ecological and social dimensions, our study highlights the importance of incorporating non-material values into conservation and landscape management strategies.

After decades of river channelisation, restoration projects are flourishing, many with the aim of reducing flood risk by re-connecting rivers to their floodplains and making space for water. Pond creation is often included to enable temporary storage of surface water as a natural flood management (NFM) measure in catchment-scale restoration programmes. However, evidence on the potential benefits of these newly created NFM ponds for biodiversity is still scarce, including for flagship wetland groups such as dragonflies (Odonata). To examine this, inventories of adult Odonata were undertaken in the Eddleston Water catchment (Scottish Borders). Twenty ponds were surveyed: ten newly created NFM ponds and 10 pre-existing ponds (used as reference sites). Pond creation for NFM has strengthened the regional Odonata populations and increased habitat availability, with all recorded species of dragonflies now found at more sites. NFM ponds display slightly higher Odonata alpha species richness than reference ponds. Community composition of NFM ponds was similar to that of reference ponds, as were their environmental conditions. Richness in Odonata was positively correlated with macrophyte richness and the percentage of pond shoreline covered in emergent vegetation, along with pond density. Practical implication. Our investigation shows that ponds created primarily as NFM measures can host Odonata communities as diverse as established ponds, provided they are well located, well designed, and managed in ways that allow the development of aquatic vegetation in the pond and on its shoreline. As such, the flood management ponds of the Eddleston Water catchment are a good example of effective nature-based solution implementation, tackling the twin crises of climate change and biodiversity loss.

Following habitat destruction through the intensification of agriculture and urbanisation, about 50–90% of European ponds disappeared over the course of the twentieth century. As their importance for freshwater biodiversity is now increasingly recognised, more ponds are being created, but their effects on pondscape and regional biodiversity are too rarely monitored. This study investigates the benefits to aquatic species diversity of building more ponds near Geneva, Switzerland. The communities of aquatic macroinvertebrates and macrophytes of pre-existing ponds were compared with that of additional ponds created specifically to provide more habitats for biodiversity. The creation of additional ponds increased macroinvertebrate and macrophyte richness at the level of individual pondscapes as well as at the larger regional scale. It also significantly improved beta diversity within pondscapes, leading to richer, more heterogeneous pond communities. Some additional ponds were intentionally designed quite differently from the previous ponds, allowing for a variety of sizes and shallower depths, which benefitted vulnerable species typical of temporary pools. This study highlights the significant contribution of pond creation on freshwater biodiversity, even in landscapes already characterised by rich, high-quality ponds, and the importance of maintaining a range of diverse pond types that will benefit various species.

Amphibians are commonly occurring inhabitants of most lentic freshwater ecosystems, yet their global populations are in alarming decline. Ponds in particular play a crucial role in supporting amphibian biodiversity. In this study, we identified the main drivers influencing amphibian species richness by conducting a comprehensive ecological characterization in 201 ponds across seven European countries spanning a large latitudinal and longitudinal gradient. The amphibian species richness in each of these ponds was assessed using environmental DNA metabarcoding on water samples. The relative influence of climatic, local abiotic and biotic, and land use variables on variation in species richness across ponds was quantified using boosted regression trees. Our results suggest that local factors, particularly chlorophyll-a concentration, but also pond area and depth, are the main drivers of amphibian richness, together with climatic variables such as annual mean precipitation and temperature. The highest richness was observed in low-nutrient, fishless, intermediate-sized, shallow ponds, located in warmer regions with higher precipitation rates. These potential drivers of amphibian richness should be considered in the planning and implementation of amphibian conservation and management actions.

Most amphibians found in Europe inhabit ponds, small aquatic ecosystems commonly threatened by habitat degradation and destruction. Despite this situation, ponds are rarely considered in conservation policies. Thus, their effective management may present a significant opportunity to alleviate the ongoing decline of amphibian populations. In this study, we assessed if the favourable condition of a pond and its conservation status promotes its amphibian species richness, which was determined by using environmental DNA metabarcoding. For this, we investigated the condition of 154 ponds across six European countries, considered through measurements of their conservation status (Shallow Lentic Ecosystem Conservation Status index, ECELS), water quality and trophic state, and physical characteristics. By utilising Generalised Linear Mixed Models, we determined that a higher amphibian species richness, and a higher number of protected ones, are found in shallow ponds with a better pond condition, meaning a higher conservation status and a better water quality. Specifically, we observed that non-eutrophic ponds characterized by permeable and shallow basins with smooth slopes, and without weirs, foster a higher amphibian diversity. Conservation efforts targeting the preservation of natural pond hydrological processes and mitigating nutrient pollution are critical for safeguarding amphibian biodiversity in Europe and contributing to broader freshwater conservation goals.

Ponds and pondscapes are crucial habitats for biodiversity and provide significant ecosystem services and socio-cultural benefits. However, effective management of these habitats requires an in-depth evaluation of how stakeholders perceive them and interact with them. This study aims to explore stakeholder relationships with their local ponds and pondscapes to better understand their interactions, expectations, concerns, and perspectives, ultimately informing more effective conservation and management strategies. Using stakeholder storylines and the Nature Futures Framework (NFF), we analyzed data gathered from participatory workshops in eight countries (United Kingdom, Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, and Uruguay). Thematic analysis was performed to identify key themes regarding stakeholders’ interactions, conservation expectations, climate change concerns, and management preferences related to local ponds and pondscapes across different countries. In addition, descriptive analysis was used to assess the different values that stakeholders assigned to ponds, including their ecological, cultural, and socio-economic significance. Our findings reveal a multifaceted relationship between stakeholders and pondscapes, deeply influenced by local socio-ecological contexts, including cultural heritage, biodiversity, recreation, and climate change concerns. Despite regional differences, stakeholders universally acknowledged the urgent need for sustainable conservation practices, envisioning future pondscapes that are resilient to climate change, rich in biodiversity, and capable of supporting diverse ecological and societal functions. Our study underscores the importance of integrating diverse stakeholder perspectives into pondscape management to foster more context-sensitive and sustainable conservation efforts that safeguard these vital habitats worldwide.

Ponds are key freshwater habitats supporting biodiversity and ecosystem services, yet they remain understudied in the context of land use and climate change. We examined 240 ponds across eight countries (seven in Europe and Uruguay) to assess how internal pond characteristics, surrounding land cover and livestock intensity, seasonal climatic variation, and climate influence nutrient concentrations across spatial and temporal scales. Nutrient concentrations were strongly associated with internal features: shallow ponds and short hydroperiods had higher total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations, while thermal stratification, typically found in deeper ponds, was associated with higher TN, indicating enhanced internal nutrient recycling. Land use also played a significant role with agricultural intensity increasing nutrient concentration (both TN and TP), whereas forest cover reduced TP. Seasonal variation modulated these patterns, with higher TP concentrations observed in summer, and with dilution effects during wetter and cooler periods, particularly for TN in semi-permanent ponds. These findings underscore the combined influence of physical characteristics, landscape context, and climate variability on nutrient concentrations in ponds and highlight the need for integrated, multi-scale approaches to anticipate the impacts of global climate change effects on these ecologically valuable ecosystems.

Estimating organisms' responses to environmental variables and taxon associations across broad spatial scales is vital for predicting their responses to climate change. Macroinvertebrates play a major role in wetland processes, but studies simultaneously exploring both community structure and community trait responses to environmental gradients are still lacking. We compiled a global dataset (six continents) from 756 depressional wetlands, including the occurrence of 96 macroinvertebrate families, their phylogenetic tree, and 19 biological traits. Using Bayesian hierarchical joint species distribution models (JSDMs), we estimated macroinvertebrate associations and compared the influences of local and climatic predictors on both individual macroinvertebrate families and their traits. While macroinvertebrate families were mainly related to broad-scale factors (maximum temperature and precipitation seasonality), macroinvertebrate traits were strongly related to local wetland hydroperiod. Interestingly, macroinvertebrate families and traits both showed positive and negative associations to the same environmental variables. As expected, many macroinvertebrate family occurrences were positively associated with temperature, but a few showed the opposite pattern and were found in cooler or montane regions. We also found that wetland macroinvertebrate communities would likely be affected by changing climates through alterations in traits related to precipitation seasonality, temperature seasonality, and wetland area. Temperature increases may negatively affect collector and shredder functional groups. A decrease in precipitation could lead to reductions in wetland area benefiting drought-tolerant macroinvertebrates, but it may negatively affect macroinvertebrates lacking those adaptations. Wetland processes may be compromised through broad-scale environmental changes altering macroinvertebrate family distributions and local hydroperiod shifts altering organism traits. Our complementary family-based and trait-based approaches elucidate the complex effects that climate change may produce on wetland ecosystems.

Unlocking the full potential of ponds (small water bodies) and pondscapes (network of ponds) as Nature-based Solutions (NbS) is critical pursuit for enhancing ecosystems and societal resilience to climate change and other societal challenges. Despite scattered initiatives for pond/pondscape creation, restoration and management—each considered here a distinct NbS—there is a significant knowledge gap in utilising ponds/pondscapes as effective NbS. We aimed to assess these NbS in terms of their objectives, outcomes, effectiveness, multifunctionality, delivery of potentially conflicting effects, and the implementation process while considering their Nature's Contributions to People (NCPs, i.e., benefits to society). We compiled data on 183 NbS actions implemented across 93 ponds/pondscapes from 24 countries, predominantly from Europe, via a questionnaire distributed to experienced stakeholders implementing NbS in ponds/pondscapes. One single pond/pondscape may imply more than one NbS action. Two-thirds were in rural areas, and one-third in urban settings. Our analysis revealed that Creation of habitat for biodiversity was a primary delivery objective (targeted NCP) in the implementation of most NbS in ponds/pondscapes, often also combined with other NCPs such as Learning and inspiration, Regulation of water quantity, and Physical and psychological experiences, showcasing their intended multifunctionality. Implemented NbS primarily focused on climate change adaptation (especially Regulation of hazards and extreme events, and water quantity) rather than mitigation, with less emphasis on measures like direct greenhouse gas emissions reduction or enhancing carbon sinks. The costs associated with pond's NbS varied significantly depending on factors such as project scope, objectives, location, socio-economic-cultural system, and specific implementation requirements. The creation of ponds/pondscapes often entailed the highest financial investment, much more than their restoration or their management. In conclusion, our study underscores the multifunctionality of ponds/pondscapes and provides insights about their significant potential as cost-effective NbS for enhancing ecosystem and societal resilience to climate change and biodiversity. It underscores the importance of further research to fully understand and measure the diverse range of NbS they offer, particularly in the context of climate change mitigation. Standardised measurements of the NCP provided by these NbS in ponds/pondscapes are essential for validating managers' claims and exploring their role in addressing climate change.

Climate change increasingly threatens alpine natural areas and notably aquatic systems. Alpine waterbodies, such as ponds, are particularly vulnerable to changes in temperature. Their biodiversity faces rising threats, especially for cold stenothermal species. Located at high elevation (>2600 m a.s.l.), the aquatic network of the Macun catchment (35 ponds and several streams) was put under a strict protection framework in 2000 ("Swiss National Park") to mitigate threats to alpine biodiversity. The pond network has been regularly monitored as a sentinel of change, through aquatic macroinvertebrate sampling and physico-chemical measurements. Monitoring shows an alarmingly sharp increase in summer water temperature, rising by 4 C-degrees between 2005 and 2020 (2.7 C-degrees per decade). In contrast, nutrient concentrations have remained low and stable over these 15 years. The aquatic macroinvertebrate species richness has also been mostly stable between 2002 and 2021, with no negative impacts on the monitored cold stenotherms. Indeed, as the ponds are located at high elevation, these cold stenotherms are still living within their thermal range. Some cold stenothermal species have colonised the ponds from lower elevations, so the Macun pondscape acts as a refuge for these migrating taxa. In synthesis, our investigation highlights the alarming abiotic condition of the high -elevation freshwater biodiversity habitats, including a sharp temperature increase. It also provides evidence that their high elevation allows theses waterbodies to remain refuges for cold stenotherms, for now. In the longer term, however, a tipping point is likely to be reached, with a potential collapse of cold stenothermal biodiversity. This demonstrates the critical need to continue longer -term monitoring of high -elevation ecosystems to assess the magnitude of the impairment and to implement suitable conservation strategies, such as enhanced protection or the creation of new suitable habitats.

The current progressive increase in urbanisation is a contributing factor to the alarming rate of decrease in biodiversity worldwide, so it is critical to propose new solutions that bring nature, and their associated benefits, back to cities. Urban ponds and pondscapes are potential Nature-based Solutions that play a crucial role in the conservation and promotion of biodiversity, as well as providing other ecosystem services. Therefore, it is important to understand people's perception of the contribution that these ponds/pondscapes make in their daily lives. The aim of this study was to assess public perception of the value of the multiple ecosystem services, here referred to as Nature's Contributions to People (NCPs), provided by urban ponds with a focus on biodiversity. To achieve it, we conducted a face-to-face questionnaire survey among 331 visitors of urban parks and nature reserves in a medium-sized European city (Geneva, Switzerland). The results show that people highly value the different contributions provided by urban ponds, and that contact with nature is the main motivation for visiting urban pondscapes. Their positive view about the provided NCPs and also their acknowledgement of an improved quality of life suggest a public acceptance of these ponds. We also found that gender and income do not influence public perception of the contributions provided by urban pondscapes. Additionally, the biodiversity of urban ponds was highly appreciated, but there was a knowledge gap relating to biodiversity conservation, as both native and exotic species were valued equally. In conclusion, ponds are Nature-based Solutions that are very well adapted and accepted in cities, and in the future they should be part of the greening (and blueing) of urban planning to conserve and enhance freshwater biodiversity whilst also providing NCPs.

Small waterbodies such as ponds are widely represented in cities, contributing to the blue-green infrastructure, improving human well-being. Ornamental ponds are particularly abundant in the densest urbanized areas, especially in parks, in private grounds such as gardens and also imbedded in the green infrastructure. However, their multifunctionality remains infrequent, as generally aesthetic enjoyment is the main ecosystem service targeted. The promotion of native biodiversity is rarely a priority, as are other ecosystem services (e.g. flood mitigation or water purification). It is nevertheless questionable if such mono-functional ponds could also be able to provide other services. Indeed, an innovative approach would be to increase the multifunctionality of ornamental ponds, especially for biodiversity. This was investigated in 41 ornamental ponds designed for providing aesthetic enjoyment in the city of Geneva (Switzerland). The biodiversity was assessed, as well as selected ecosystem services (water retention, phytopurification, cooling effect, carbon sequestration). A survey among the population was also conducted. This survey underlined a recognized contribution of ornamental ponds to well-being. However, the assessment of the ecosystem services evidenced a lack of multifunctionality for most of these ponds. They presented a low biodiversity, compared to more natural ponds and to unimpaired ponds. Furthermore, they performed poorly for most other ecosystem services investigated. There were nevertheless exceptions, with selected ponds displaying a multifunctionality, even for ecosystem services for which they were not designed. It was also shown that ornamental ponds could easily be optimized for biodiversity by simple low-cost management measures. Additional ecosystem services could also be promoted. The performance of small ornamental ponds is best when ponds are considered collectively, as pondscapes, with their cumulative benefits. New ornamental pond implementation is therefore encouraged, as their multifunctionality turns them into Nature-based Solutions able to contribute to solving several societal challenges and to improve human well-being.

Ponds and "pondscapes" (networks of ponds) are crucial habitats for biodiversity and for delivering multiple benefits to humans, so-called "Nature's Contribution to People", such as climate mitigation and adaptation to climate change, creation, and maintenance of habitat for biodiversity, water purification, flood mitigation and cultural benefits (e.g., recreational possibilities). However, ponds are not often considered as Nature-based Solutions to provide all these benefits. In addition, there is insufficient knowledge on how to manage and restore ponds to maximise their role to increase the resilience of ecosystems and society to climate change. To facilitate improved implementation of ponds as Nature-based Solutions for the delivery of a wide range of Nature Contributions to People, it is important to generate and integrate biodiversity, ecosystems, societal, economic and policy knowledge. Hence, there is a need for evidence-based guidance to support the broader use of ponds. Here, we review the role of ponds and pondscapes in delivering Nature's Contributions to People and provide an overview of the challenges and opportunities for their broader implementation as Nature-based Solutions. Finally, we propose a conceptual framework that can help the implementation of pond Nature-based Solutions, and that outlines future research needs.

Ponds occupy a large share of standing water worldwide and play an important role in providing various ecosystem services. There are concerted efforts of the European Union either to create new ponds, or to restore and preserve existing ponds as nature-based solutions to provide benefits to ecosystem and human well-being. As part of the EU PONDERFUL project, selected pondscapes (i.e. landscapes of ponds) in eight different countries - hereafter "demo-sites", are studied to comprehensively understand their characteristics and their efficiency to provide ecosystem services. In addition, the needs and knowledge of stakeholders who own, work, research, or benefit from the pondscapes are also important, because of their capabilities to create, manage and develop the pondscapes. Therefore, we established connection with stakeholders to study their preferences and visions on the pondscapes. Using the analytic hierarchy process, this study shows that in general stakeholders in the European and Turkish demo-sites prefer environmental benefits to economic benefits, while stakeholders in the Uruguayan demo-sites rank the economic benefits higher. More specifically, in the European and Turkish demo-sites, the biodiversity benefits, i.e. life-cycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection, receive the highest ranking among all groups. On the other hand, stakeholders at the Uruguayan demo-sites rank provisioning benefits as the most important, because many ponds in Uruguayan demo-sites are being used for agricultural purposes. Understanding those preferences helps policy makers to address the needs of stakeholders more correctly, when considering any action or policy for the pondscapes.

Climate change is rapidly driving global biodiversity declines. How wetland macroinvertebrate assemblages are responding is unclear, a concern given their vital function in these ecosystems. Using a data set from 769 minimally impacted depressional wetlands across the globe (467 temporary and 302 permanent), we evaluated how temperature and precipitation (average, range, variability) affects the richness and beta diversity of 144 macroinvertebrate families. To test the effects of climatic predictors on macroinvertebrate diversity, we fitted generalized additive mixed-effects models (GAMM) for family richness and generalized dissimilarity models (GDMs) for total beta diversity. We found non-linear relationships between family richness, beta diversity, and climate. Maximum temperature was the main climatic driver of wetland macroinvertebrate richness and beta diversity, but precipitation seasonality was also important. Assemblage responses to climatic variables also depended on wetland water permanency. Permanent wetlands from warmer regions had higher family richness than temporary wetlands. Interestingly, wetlands in cooler and dry-warm regions had the lowest taxonomic richness, but both kinds of wetlands supported unique assemblages. Our study suggests that climate change will have multiple effects on wetlands and their macroinvertebrate diversity, mostly via increases in maximum temperature, but also through changes in patterns of precipitation. The most vulnerable wetlands to climate change are likely those located in warm-dry regions, where entire macroinvertebrate assemblages would be extirpated. Montane and high-latitude wetlands (i.e., cooler regions) are also vulnerable to climate change, but we do not expect entire extirpations at the family level.

Artificial ponds are increasingly created for the services they provide to humans. While they have the potential to offer habitats for freshwater biodiversity, their contribution to regional diversity has hardly been quantified. In this study, we assess the relative contribution of five types of artificial ponds to regional biodiversity of five different regions, studying amphibians, water beetles and freshwater snails. This biodiversity is also compared with that observed in natural ponds from three of the investigated regions. Our results indicate that artificial ponds host, on average, about 50% of the regional pool of lentic species. When compared to natural ponds, the artificial ponds always supported a substantially lower alpha richness (54% of the natural pond richness). The invertebrate communities presented high values of beta diversity and were represented by a restricted set of widely distributed species, and by numerous rare species. There were discrepancies among the taxonomic groups: overall, amphibians benefited most from the presence of artificial ponds, since 65% of the regional lentic species pools for this group was found in artificial ponds, whereas 43% and 42% was observed in the case of beetles and snails, respectively. However, each invertebrate group was promptly the most benefited animal group in a single pond type. Therefore, artificial pond types were complementary among them in terms of contribution to regional diversity of the three animal groups. Based on these results, we forecast that future human-dominated landscapes in which most ponds are artificial will be particularly impoverished in terms of freshwater biodiversity, underlining the need to conserve existing natural ponds and to create new “near-natural” ponds. However, if properly designed and managed, artificial ponds could make a substantial contribution to support freshwater biodiversity at a regional scale. Furthermore, the number and diversity of artificial ponds must be high in each considered landscape.

Today, aquatic biodiversity suffers from many pressures linked to human activities, including climate change, which particularly affects alpine areas. Many alpine freshwater species have shifted their geographical distribution to colder areas, but a reduced availability of suitable habitats is also forecasted. New artificial water bodies could provide habitat enhancement opportunities, including small mountain reservoirs built to overcome a lack of snow during winter. To investigate the role of reservoirs as a habitat for freshwater invertebrates, a case study was conducted on eight reservoirs in the Swiss Alps. The study aimed to compare the water quality and freshwater biodiversity of the reservoirs with those of 39 natural and newly excavated ponds. Data were collected on physico-chemistry, freshwater habitat structure, and aquatic insects (dragonflies and aquatic beetles). The study showed that the mountain reservoirs investigated did not differ from natural ponds in terms of surface area, conductivity, and trophic level. Similarly to natural ponds, reservoirs showed signs of impairment owing to surface run-off carrying pollutants linked to ski tourism. They presented a low diversity of mesohabitats, and in particular lacked vegetation. Compared with natural ponds, the species richness in reservoirs was lower for dragonflies but not for beetles. At the regional scale, the community from the reservoirs was a subset of the natural ponds community, supporting 38% of the regional species richness for these two insect groups. The results suggest that mountain reservoirs are likely to be important for biodiversity in alpine areas, both as habitats and as stepping stones for species shifting their geographical range. These water bodies can be enhanced further by some nature-friendly measures to maximize benefits for biodiversity, including margin revegetation or the creation of adjacent ponds. Ecological engineering needs to be innovative and promote freshwater biodiversity in artificial reservoirs.

Many cities around the world are expanding and this trend in urbanization is expected to sharply increase over coming decades. At the same time, the integration of green and blue spaces is widely promoted in urban development, potentially offering numerous benefits for biodiversity. This is particularly relevant for urban waterbodies, a type of ecosystem present in most cities. However, site managers often lack the knowledge base to promote biodiversity in these waterbodies, which are generally created to provide other ecosystem services. To address this, our review presents guidelines for promoting biodiversity in urban ponds. We found a total of 516 publications indexed in ISI Web of Sciences related to this topic, of which 279 were retained for the purposes of our review. The biodiversity of urban ponds, measured by species richness, appears to be generally lower than in rural ponds; however, urban ponds often support threatened species. Furthermore, if well managed, urban ponds have the potential to support a much greater biodiversity than they currently do. Indeed, this review shows that a range of urban factors can impair or promote pond biodiversity, including many that can easily be controlled by site managers. Local factors include design (surface area, pond depth, banks and margins, shade, shoreline irregularity), water quality (conductivity, nutrients, heavy metals), and hydroperiod and biotic characteristics (stands of vegetation, fish, invasive species). Important regional factors include several indicators of urbanization (roads, buildings, density of population, impervious surfaces, car traffic), and the presence of other wetlands or green spaces in the surrounding landscape. We considered each of these factors and their potential impact on freshwater biodiversity. Taking into account the management measures listed in the publications reviewed, we have proposed a framework for the management of urban ponds, with guidelines to promote biodiversity and other ecosystem services, and to avoid ecosystem disservices or the creation of ecological traps. At the city scale, the biodiversity of a pondscape benefits from a high diversity of pond types, differing in their environmental characteristics and management.