Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important foreign exchange earner for Ghana. However, production is constrained by a high incidence of pests and diseases. Based on farmers’ needs, this study focused on the control of capsids, mainly Sahlbergella singularis Haglund and Distantiella theobroma (Distant) (both Hemiptera: Miridae). Annual crop loss caused by capsids is estimated at 25-30%. To control capsids, formal research recommends application of synthetic insecticides four times between August and December. However, farmers hardly adopt this recommendation, which they consider unsuitable for their conditions and context. Three alternative control methods were tested with farmers: mass trapping, using sex pheromones; applying crude aqueous neem Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) seed extract (ANSE) and using the predatory ant Oecophylla longinoda Latreille (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) as a biological control agent. Contrary to most previous reports, studies on temporal distribution of cocoa capsids indicated that the population peaked in March. ANSE was effective against capsids and other cocoa insect pests and did not affect the predatory ant. When O. longinoda occurred in high numbers, capsid incidence was low. Shade did not influence ant or capsid abundance significantly. ANSE caused 100% mortality of capsids in cage and 79-88% in field experiments. The sex pheromone was as effective as ANSE or ants in suppressing capsids. All the three methods were effective and compatible; hence, they can be used in an integrated pest management strategy for cocoa, including organic production in Ghana.

The conventional method of ‘delivering’ technologies recommended by researchers to farmers through extension has proved ineffective, resulting in a persistent low (3.5% over ten years) adoption of research-based cocoa technologies. The present study was conducted in the Eastern Region of Ghana and assessed the impact of the Local Agricultural Research Committee (LARC) approach on the diffusion of capsid management knowledge and practices, developed with the LARC, to others in the community. Capsids (Sahlbergella singularis and Distantiella theobroma) were diagnosed as the most serious production constraint. LARC members engaged in intensive interactive learning and experimentation to control them. The interactive approach developed by the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture was used to link the LARC with community farmers, a majority of whom aspired to produce organic cocoa for a premium. The LARC acquired vital agro-ecological knowledge on capsid management, including skills in scouting for capsids to determine their temporal distribution and systematic experimentation with control methods, before presenting its results to the community. This article reports on a survey comparing three categories of farmers: LARC members, exposed and non-exposed community farmers, so as to assess the diffusion and impact of LARC knowledge co-production. The results show that the LARC approach significantly influenced acquisition and diffusion of knowledge and practices.

The study assessed the biological activity of neem azal and neemol against nymphs and adults of the shield bug, Bathycoelia thalassina, in the laboratory at the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana. Toxicity of the neem products and their effect on moulting, nymphal survival, development time, adult longevity, and oviposition of the bug were determined at 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0 and 10.0 per cent v/v concentration. At 10 per cent v/v concentration, neem azal and neemol shortened the longevity of adult B. thalassina to 34 and 49 days, respectively. Neem azal delayed oviposition of the bug until after 26 days, but neemol did not have this effect. Egg laying was generally reduced by both neem products to as low as 12 eggs per female at 10 per cent v/v. Furthermore, neem azal and neemol extended the incubation period of the eggs by 4 days, and reduced percent egg hatchability by 30 and 17 per cent, respectively, compared to the control. Eggs that did not hatch gradually shrivelled and turned black. The neem products disrupted moulting, and nymphs emerging from neem-treated cocoa pods had flexed wings. Development time was prolonged and adult emergence was reduced. All insects exposed to 10 per cent v/v neem azal died after an extended period in the third and fourth instar stages. This study shows that neem azal and neemol can be used to effectively disrupt growth processes in B. thalassina, and may have great potential as a component of integrated management of the pest in cocoa production. Ghana Journal of Agricultural Science Vol. 38, 2005: 3-12

Eulophonotus myrmeleon larvae had population peaks in May and September and this occurred mainly up to 1.5 m above ground level. Adult emergence showed peaks in April and October. Larvae could be controlled by squeezing aluminium phosphide paste into the exit holes or by plugging them with pieces of wood. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

A diagnostic study was conducted to identify the major constraints on organic cocoa production at Brong-Densuso and surrounding communities in the Suhum-Kraboa-Coaltar District, Eastern Region, Ghana. The study followed a technographic study that highlighted cocoa as a public crop requiring broad techno-social innovations. In the technographic study, problems identified included low yields, persistent pest management constraints and a low adoption rate of technologies developed by the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana. The diagnostic study adopted a Participatory Learning and Action Research approach to set up and implement fieldwork with relevant stakeholders leading to problem identification, prioritization, and collective design of an action plan (research agenda). Cocoa farmers within the study area are conscious of the environmental problems associated with the use of inorganic pesticides and the high cost of using them. Hence, they produce cocoa without applying any pesticides. Quite recently, however, their association with an organic marketing company led to a search for non-chemical pest and disease control measures and for ways to certify their cocoa beans as organic. A misconception as to what species of cocoa pests constitute ‘capsids’ was settled between farmers and scientists using a cage experiment on capsid damage. The farmers became convinced that the Cocoa Mosquito (Helopeltis spp.) (Hemiptera: Miridae), which they had previously considered an important pest, was a capsid species that caused little or no damage to the beans inside the pods. After this clarification, damage caused by the Brown Capsid (Sahlbergella singularis; Hemiptera: Miridae) and the Black Capsid (Distantiella theobroma; Hemiptera: Miridae) emerged as the most serious production constraint, followed by Black Pod disease (caused by Phytophtora palmivora). The malfunctioning of tenure agreements and the mistrust between landlords, who are mainly absentee farmers, and their caretaker cocoa farmers pose a serious threat to pest management innovations, especially where pruning to control Black Pod disease and uprooting trees infected with Swollen Shoot disease are concerned. The key stakeholders involved in the study agreed on three innovative (organic) capsid control methods for further research: the use of sex pheromone traps, crude aqueous neem (Azadirachta indica) seed extracts, and the use of ant (Oecophylla longinoda) colonies as biological control agents, the latter being proposed by farmers. The paper reflects on the diagnostic study as a continuous process in response to a continually changing context even beyond the end of the diagnostic research phase.

A female Eulophonotus myrmeleon at emergence contains fully developed eggs and may lay whether mated or not. There is no preferred oviposition site and eggs are deposited randomly on the tree or on plant debris. The larva tunnels into a stem, enlarging the gallery as it grows, and spends its entire immature life inside the stem. Survival to adulthood was 2–3%. Copyright © 2004 Whurr Publishers Ltd

In a study aimed at identifying the natural enemies of the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari), coffee berries were collected from several localities in Ghana within the period January 1997 - February 1998. The berries were thoroughly inspected for insects before being kept in lampshades covered with fine nylon mesh for the emergence of insects. Insects recorded were of the orders Hymenoptera (families Braconidae, Bethylidae, Pteramalidae and Eupelmidae); Diptera (families Cecidomyiidae, Ceratopogonidae, Chironomidae, Drosophilidae Muscidae, Phoridae, Sciaridae, Tephritidae); Coleoptera (families Anthribidae, Corylophidae, Dermestidae, Laemophloeidae) and Lepidoptera (families Lycaenidae, Gelechiidae). Among these, the berry borer Araecerus coffeae (Coleoptera: Anthribidae) and a suspect parasitoid Opius sp. (Braconidae: subfamily Opiinae) are new records to Ghana Other insects included an unidentified berry feeder of the family Gelechiidae (Lepidoptera), Leptophloeus sp. (Coleoptera.- Laemophloeidae) and an unidentified Diptera both of which might be predatory. Other insects associated with the berries were Antherigona orientalis (Diptera: Muscidae), Attagenus sp. (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) and unidentified Sciaridae which were probably mere scavengers.The majority of insects, H. hampei and the Drosophilidae being the exception, occurred in very low numbers. Thus, the proportional representation of insects recorded during the study period were, H. hampei (59.1%), Drosophilidae (32.5%), Gelechiidae (3.1%), Virachola lorisona (2.1%), Araecerus coffeae (0.3%), Thrirhithrum coffeae (0.3%), Antherigona orientalis (0.2%), Attagenus sp. (0.4%), Opius sp. (0.3%), Leptophloeus sp. (0.2%) and 0.5% for the remaining insects. The study is being continued to confirm the roles of identified insects, particularly the suspect parasitoids and predators, with the aim of manipulating them for biological control of H. hampei.