Societal Impact Statement Herbaria in the Global South are critical yet underutilized resources for biodiversity science and are often absent from international databases and research networks. We highlight the phenomenon of "silent herbaria" using Nigeria as a case study and quantify how these collections fill important gaps in global biodiversity knowledge. By integrating these collections into international systems, we can strengthen ecological models, promote research equity, and support global efforts to democratize science and build more inclusive biodiversity infrastructures.Summary Herbaria represent a global biodiversity heritage essential for botanical research and conservation assessments. Despite their importance, herbaria around the world-especially in under-resourced regions, including much of Africa-are "silent." Silent collections are relatively unknown, underused, and underappreciated by the global botanical community. Here, we illustrate these problems through a detailed case-study of Nigerian herbaria and demonstrate that biodiversity assessments can be dramatically improved when silent herbaria are empowered to speak. We identified that new herbaria in Africa are being established at a faster rate than suggested by international registries. Over 70% of Nigerian herbaria are unrecognized in key international registries, making them nearly invisible and inaccessible to the global research community. More than 90% of these collections remain undigitized and thus are inaccessible online. Because these collections capture critical temporal and spatial gaps not represented in herbaria outside of Nigeria, their absence from global databases reduces the accuracy of large-scale biodiversity models. Despite these many striking challenges, the number of silent herbaria in Nigeria has increased at a rate faster than the global average owing to commitments by Nigerian biodiversity scholars and administrators to prioritize herbaria for research and education. However, severely limited funding and inadequate infrastructure to effectively house these collections threaten their continued use, growth, sustainability, and online mobilization. Silent herbaria are critical for improving biodiversity science at regional and global levels. Integration into global networks, increased investment, and digitization efforts are crucial for giving voice to silent herbaria in Africa. Large benefits to biodiversity science will accrue rapidly from such investment and integration.

During the last two decades, a wealth of data on biodiversity and associated environments has been mobilized in digital form. Collectively, these data provide a powerful resource that when curated and integrated with intention, can provide critical information to address emerging complex global biological, environmental, and public health challenges. Tapping into the vast potential of specimen, observation, and environmental data requires us to integrate diverse and multifaceted datasets, connect domain-specific communities, and bridge discipline-specific social norms and data infrastructures. Linking data and their respective communities is a critical next step to creating the accessible and enriched data source needed to empower broad integrative biological research and education. To initiate cross-domain collaborations, the Building an Integrated, Open, Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (*1) Data Network project, led by the Biodiversity Collections Network (BCoN) and funded by the United States National Science Foundation, convened stakeholders through six listening sessions over the summer of 2024. The sessions were aimed at building connections between disparate data communities—highlighting an iterative process of building a larger, interdisciplinary community from within. These listening sessions brought together representatives from federal agencies, the genetic data community, the ecology data community, the climate and environmental data community, the One Health community, and the biodiversity informatics community to initiate a collaborative and accessible partnership toward an integrative and expanded data network. Discussions focused on advancing data culture and infrastructure that meets emerging needs in research, education, conservation, biosecurity, and the bioeconomy. Participants discussed building on and bridging the Extended Specimen Network (ESN) vision with other existing conceptual frameworks for data integration and application (Lendemer et al. 2019, Thiers et al. 2019). Stakeholder groups will be brought together at an interdisciplinary workshop in early 2025, to develop a roadmap to augment existing initiatives with the aim of producing a FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable), open, integrated data network.

Journal Article Community Action: Planning for Specimen Management in Funding Proposals Get access Andrew Bentley, Andrew Bentley Biodiversity Institute at the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, United States E-mail: abentley@ku.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3093-1258 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Barbara Thiers, Barbara Thiers New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8613-7133 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar William E Moser, William E Moser National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Suitland, Maryland, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5265-9347 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Gregory J Watkins-Colwell, Gregory J Watkins-Colwell Yale Peabody Museum, New Haven, Connecticut, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7789-9806 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Breda M Zimkus, Breda M Zimkus Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8973-526X Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Anna K Monfils, Anna K Monfils Department of Biology at Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, Michigan, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3553-6430 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Nico M Franz, Nico M Franz School of Life Sciences at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7089-7018 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar John M Bates, John M Bates Negaunee Integrative Research Center, Field Museum, Chicago, Illinois, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5809-5941 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Kyria Boundy-Mills, Kyria Boundy-Mills Phaff Yeast Culture Collection, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9272-5903 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Michael W Lomas, Michael W Lomas National Center for Marine Algae and Microbiota, Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, Maine, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1209-3753 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar ... Show more Elizabeth R Ellwood, Elizabeth R Ellwood University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1602-1917 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Sinlan Poo, Sinlan Poo Department of Conservation and Research, Memphis Zoological Society, Memphis, Tennessee, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7767-8173 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Dori L Contreras, Dori L Contreras Perot Museum of Nature and Science, Dallas, Texas, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6820-7364 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Michael S Webster, Michael S Webster Cornell Lab of Ornithology, at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7585-4578 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Gil Nelson, Gil Nelson Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7851-4445 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Jyotsna L Pandey Jyotsna L Pandey American Institute of Biological Sciences, Herndon, Virginia, United States https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8173-0424 Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar BioScience, biae032, https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biae032 Published: 04 June 2024 Article history Received: 27 March 2024 Accepted: 28 March 2024 Published: 04 June 2024

Abstract Oil bodies are unique organelles with unknown physiological function only present in liverworts (Marchantiophyta). We show that oil bodies host masses of endophytic bacteria derived through cell division in apical meristems, leading to oil body formation in maturing cells. The early divergence of liverworts in land plant evolution indicates that this is one of the oldest symbioses in terrestrial plants with implications for early land plant evolution.

Herbaria remain the primary means of documenting plant life on earth, and the number of herbaria worldwide and the number of specimens they hold continues to grow. Digitization of herbarium specimens, though far from complete, has increased the discoverability of herbarium holdings and has increased the range of studies from which data from herbarium specimens can be used. The rather large number of herbaria about which no current information is available is a source of concern, as is herbarium consolidation and removal of herbaria to offsite storage facilities. Partnerships are key to the future health of herbaria. Benefits could accrue from the reimagining of the world's herbaria as a global resource rather than a collection of independent, often competing institutions. Herbaria can extend the reach of their specimens by joining the nascent effort to link the species occurrence data they manage to other biological and environmental data sources to deepen our ability to understand the interrelationships of earth's biota. To assure that data held by herbaria contribute to the range of conservation-related projects for which they are relevant, herbaria should embrace the tenets of Team Science and play a more proactive role in promoting their holdings for relevant research and conservation projects.

Herbarium collections shape our understanding of Earth's flora and are crucial for addressing global change issues. Their formation, however, is not free from sociopolitical issues of immediate relevance. Despite increasing efforts addressing issues of representation and colonialism in natural history collections, herbaria have received comparatively less attention. While it has been noted that the majority of plant specimens are housed in the Global North, the extent and magnitude of this disparity have not been quantified. Here we examine the colonial legacy of botanical collections, analysing 85,621,930 specimen records and assessing survey responses from 92 herbarium collections across 39 countries. We find an inverse relationship between where plant diversity exists in nature and where it is housed in herbaria. Such disparities persist across physical and digital realms despite overt colonialism ending over half a century ago. We emphasize the need for acknowledging the colonial history of herbarium collections and implementing a more equitable global paradigm for their collection, curation and use.

Zoos and natural history museums are both collections-based institutions with important missions in biodiversity research and education. Animals in zoos are a repository and living record of the world's biodiversity, whereas natural history museums are a permanent historical record of snapshots of biodiversity in time. Surprisingly, despite significant overlap in institutional missions, formal partnerships between these institution types are infrequent. Life history information, pedigrees, and medical records maintained at zoos should be seen as complementary to historical records of morphology, genetics, and distribution kept at museums. Through examining both institution types, we synthesize the benefits and challenges of cross-institutional exchanges and propose actions to increase the dialog between zoos and museums. With a growing recognition of the importance of collections to the advancement of scientific research and discovery, a transformational impact could be made with long-term investments in connecting the institutions that are caretakers of living and preserved animals.

speciesLink is a large-scale biodiversity information portal that exists thanks to a broad collaborative network of people and institutions. CRIA's involvement with the scientific community of Brazil and other countries is responsible for the significant results achieved, currently reaching more than 15 million primary biodiversity data records, 95% of which are associated with preserved specimens and about 25% with high-quality digital images. The network provides data on over 200,000 species, of which over 110,000 occur in Brazil. This article describes thematic networks within speciesLink, as well as some of the most useful tools developed. The importance and contributions of speciesLink are outlined, as are concerns about securing stable budgetary support for such biodiversity data e-infrastructures. Here we review the value of speciesLink as a major source of biodiversity information for research, education, informed decision-making, policy development, and bioeconomy.

Field photographs of plant species are crucial for research and conservation, but the lack of a centralized database makes them difficult to locate. We surveyed 25 online databases of field photographs and found that they harboured only about 53% of the approximately 125,000 vascular plant species of the Americas. These results reflect the urgent need for a centralized database that can both integrate and complete the photographic record of the world's flora.

Professor Alexandre Antonelli, Director of Science, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew introduces this major online report with the aim that it “tackles the knowledge gaps and unlocks the known and potential benefits of fungi and plants for us and our planet. Drawing upon the expertise of 210 researchers in 97 institutions across 42 countries, this unparalleled collaborative effort, generously funded by the Sfumato Foundation, aims to tell the world where we might find solutions to the challenges we face. Although there is no single or easy way out of the environmental crisis, the relevance of plant and fungal science cannot be understated. This is the fourth report in Kew’s State of the World’s series, which focused on plants in 2016 and 2017, and fungi in 2018. This is the first time that plants and fungi have been combined in one report, to highlight their intrinsic links and joint benefits.”

Societal Impact StatementPlant and fungal specimens provide the auditable evidence that a particular organism occurred at a particular place, and at a particular point in time, verifying past occurrence and distribution. They also document the aspects of human exploration and culture. Collectively specimens form a global asset with significant potential for new uses to help address societal and environmental challenges. Collections also serve as a platform to engage and educate a broad range of stakeholders from the academic to the public, strengthening engagement and understanding of plant and fungal diversity—the basis of life on Earth.SummaryWe provide a global review of the current state of plant and fungal collections including herbaria and fungaria, botanic gardens, fungal culture collections, and biobanks. The review focuses on the numbers of collections, major taxonomic group and species level coverage, geographical representation and the extent to which the data from collections are digitally accessible. We identify the major gaps in these collections and in digital data. We also consider what collection types need to be further developed to support research, such as environmental DNA and cryopreservation of desiccation‐sensitive seeds. Around 31% of vascular plant species are represented in botanic gardens, and 17% of known fungal species are held in culture collections, both these living collections showing a bias toward northern temperate taxa. Only 21% of preserved collections are available via the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) with Asia, central and north Africa and Amazonia being relatively under‐represented. Supporting long‐term collection facilities in biodiverse areas should be considered by governmental and international aid agencies, in addition to short‐term project funding. Institutions should consider how best to speed up digitization of collections and to disseminate all data via aggregators such as GBIF, which will greatly facilitate use, research, and community curation to improve quality. There needs to be greater alignment between biodiversity informatics initiatives and standards to allow more comprehensive analysis of collections data and to facilitate linkage of extended information, facilitating broader use. Much can be achieved with greater coordination through existing initiatives and strengthening relationships with users.

Information about natural history collections helps to map the complex landscape of research resources and assists researchers in locating and contacting the holders of specimens. Collection records contribute to the development of a fully interlinked biodiversity knowledge graph (Page 2016), showcasing the existence and importance of museums and herbaria and supplying context to available data on specimens. These records also potentially open new avenues for fresh use of these collections and for accelerating their full availability online. A number of international (e.g., Index Herbariorum, GRSciColl) regional (e.g. DiSSCo and CETAF) national (e.g., ALA and the Living Atlases, iDigBio US Collections Catalog) and institutional networks (e.g., The Field Museum) separately document subsets of the world's collections, and the Biodiversity Information Standards (TDWG) Collection Descriptions Interest Group is actively developing standards to support information sharing on collections. However, these efforts do not yet combine to deliver a comprehensive and connected view of all collections globally. The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) received funding as part of the European Commission-funded SYNTHESYS+ 7 project to explore development of a roadmap towards delivering such a view, in part as a contribution towards the establishment of DiSSCo services within a global ecosystem of collection catalogues. Between 17 and 29 April 2020, a coordination team comprising international representatives from multiple networks ran Advancing the Catalogue of the World’s Natural History Collections, a fully online consultation using the GBIF Discourse forum platform to guide discussion around 26 consultation topics identified in an initial Ideas Paper (Hobern et al. 2020). Discussions included support for contributions in Spanish, Chinese and French and were summarised daily throughout the consultation. The consultation confirmed broad agreement around the needs and goals for a comprehensive catalogue of the world’s natural history collections, along with possible strategies to overcome the challenges. This presentation will summarise the results and recommendations.

It is time to synthesize the knowledge that has been generated through more than 260 years of botanical exploration, taxonomic and, more recently, phylogenetic research throughout the world. The adoption of an updated Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) in 2011 provided the essential impetus for the development of the World Flora Online (WFO) project. The project represents an international, coordinated effort by the botanical community to achieve GSPC Target 1, an electronic Flora of all plants. It will be a first-ever unique and authoritative global source of information on the world's plant diversity, compiled, curated, moderated and updated by an expert and specialist-based community (Taxonomic Expert Networks - "TENs" - covering a taxonomic group such as family or order) and actively managed by those who have compiled and contributed the data it includes. Full credit and acknowledgement will be given to the original sources, allowing users to refer back to the primary data. A strength of the project is that it is led and endorsed by a global consortium of more than 40 leading botanical institutions worldwide. A first milestone for producing the World Flora Online is to be accomplished by the end of 2020, but the WFO Consortium is committed to continuing the WFO programme beyond 2020 when it will develop its full impact as the authoritative source of information on the world's plant biodiversity.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biz140.].

A key feature of life’s diversity is that some species are common but many more are rare. Nonetheless, at global scales, we do not know what fraction of biodiversity consists of rare species. Here, we present the largest compilation of global plant diversity to quantify the fraction of Earth’s plant biodiversity that are rare. A large fraction, ~36.5% of Earth’s ~435,000 plant species, are exceedingly rare. Sampling biases and prominent models, such as neutral theory and the k-niche model, cannot account for the observed prevalence of rarity. Our results indicate that (i) climatically more stable regions have harbored rare species and hence a large fraction of Earth’s plant species via reduced extinction risk but that (ii) climate change and human land use are now disproportionately impacting rare species. Estimates of global species abundance distributions have important implications for risk assessments and conservation planning in this era of rapid global change.

The Systematics Collections Committee of the American Society of Plant Taxonomists has updated the recommendations on herbarium practices and ethics that were previously published by the Society in 1958 and 1973. The recommendations and considerations presented here are intended to provide a set of guidelines for proper management and care of herbarium collections.