Climate change is increasing the frequency and severity of drought, posing a major threat to global agriculture and food security. Drought stress is the most pervasive abiotic constraint affecting crops, disrupting cellular homeostasis, impairing photosynthesis, altering oxidative metabolism, reducing stomatal conductance, and ultimately decreasing growth and productivity. To survive water deficit, plants activate a coordinated network of physiological, biochemical, hormonal, and molecular responses. Key adaptive strategies include root system plasticity, osmotic adjustment, antioxidant defense, maintenance of photosynthetic activity, and hormone-mediated stress signaling. Recent advances indicate that drought tolerance depends not only on individual defense mechanisms but also on their integration into complex regulatory networks. Emerging technologies such as plant growth-promoting microorganisms, biostimulants, and CRISPR/Cas-based genome editing provide promising tools for enhancing drought resilience. In addition, epigenetic regulation has emerged as a critical component of plant adaptation to drought. DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin remodeling, and non-coding RNAs regulate drought-responsive gene expression without altering the DNA sequence. These modifications can establish stress memory, enabling stronger responses to recurring drought events, and in some cases may be transmitted across generations. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the physiological, molecular, and epigenetic mechanisms underlying plant responses to drought stress. Understanding the interactions among stress signaling, transcriptional regulation, and epigenetic processes will support the development of climate-resilient crop cultivars capable of sustaining productivity under increasing environmental challenges.

Abiotic stressors associated with climate change: such as drought, heat, salinity, and nutrient deficiencies pose severe threats to global agriculture by impairing plant growth, development, and reproduction. These stresses are major contributors to yield losses at both regional and global scales, thereby undermining food and nutritional security. Developing stress-resilient crops is therefore a critical priority, achievable through advanced breeding strategies and the integration of emerging technologies. This review synthesizes current knowledge on crop production under abiotic stress conditions, emphasizing the intricate and coordinated defense mechanisms that plants employ. These responses involve morphological, physiological, and biochemical adjustments that collectively mitigate the adverse effects of environmental stressors and sustain productivity. Alongside genetic improvement, climate-smart agricultural practices represent essential strategies for building resilience, improving resource use efficiency, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of crop production systems. Effective management of abiotic stresses requires a comprehensive understanding of the underlying physiological, biochemical, and ecological processes. Recent advances in genomics, speed breeding, and multi-omics technologies have transformed crop improvement programs by enabling precise identification of stress-responsive genes and pathways. These approaches accelerate genetic gains and provide novel opportunities for developing high-yielding, climate-resilient varieties. In conclusion, addressing the challenges of abiotic stresses demands an integrated approach that combines breeding innovations, omics-driven insights, and sustainable agronomic practices. Such strategies are vital for overcoming food insecurity, enhancing crop resilience, and safeguarding the productivity of global agriculture in the face of accelerating climate change.

Choosing elite sorghum parents and hybrids based on the general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) is an effective hybrid breeding approach. The GCA contributes in offering demarcation on the average performance of parents in cross combination from the deviation of half-sib families targeting homozygous dominance. On the other hand, the SCA assists in providing responses about cross combination betterment from the covariance of full-sib families intended heterozygous dominance in the hybrid. As a result, both GCA and SCA offer valuable perspectives on hybridization. The aim of this study was, to pinpoint the role that GCA and SCA play in parental selection and identification of desirable cross combination based on the progenies' performance using line x tester mating in alpha lattice design. As indicated by lower than unity of predictability ratios (δ 2 GCA/δ 2 SCA) and low narrow-sense heritability (h 2 ) values, the non-additive gene effects and environmental factors contributed significantly to the observed variations. Consequently, it is recommended that the selection procedure for exceptional individual plants should prioritize individual cross-performance. This approach would help ensure that the selected plants possess the desired traits due to non-additive genetic differences and are better equipped to withstand the environmental variability that affect trait expression. The GCA and SCA of five quantitative traits were examined for 38 crosses using the resultant of 2 lines and 19 testers with two standard checks at four locations. Results showed significant differences in GCA and SCA among parents and crosses. Six testers and one line were identified as the best general combiner by merit of significant negative GCA effects for plant height, resulting in short hybrids. The tester, Melkam has been found as a top general combiner for yield-enhancing traits, but it may also produce mid-maturing long hybrids. The three crosses PU209A/ICSR 14, PU209A/PRL 984182, and PU209A/PRL 984422 showed significant negative SCA effects in desired direction for days to 50% flowering, plant height and days to maturity. Four hybrids (PU209A/Birhan, PU209A/Meko, ATX623/PRL 020962 and PU209A/PU304) had high positive SCA effects for grain yield per hectare, which obtained by cross combination of good x poor GCA values in either direction. These results reflect the effects of polygenic variations, which are significant contributors to the expression of heterotic hybrids. Hybrid vigor can be achieved by crossing parents with different GCA values using various genetic processes. The degree of genetic distance affects the level of hybrid vigor achieved. This method of hybridization is useful in increasing production and profitability in agriculture.

Accelerating crop genetic gain is critical for sustaining food security under escalating climate change and population growth. Therefore, advanced breeding strategies that shorten generation cycles and enhance selection precision are essential to address these challenges. Hence, advanced breeding approaches such as speed breeding, genomic selection, high-throughput phenotyping, and CRISPR-based genome editing play crucial role in overcoming the constraints of conventional breeding. Conventional breeding methods have several limitations in accelerating and enhancing crop genetic gain, particularly under increasingly catastrophic biotic and abiotic stresses driven by climate change and evolving production challenges. To overcome the limitations of conventional breeding, speed breeding plays a pivotal role in shortening breeding cycles through optimized photoperiods, light spectra, and temperature regimes, while genomic selection and genome editing enhance selection accuracy and breeding efficiency per cycle. The integration of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and multi-omics is revolutionizing predictive breeding by deciphering complex genotype × environment interactions with greater precision and efficiency. Modern breeding approaches such as CRISPR/Cas9 and related technologies enable precise and heritable modifications at key genomic loci, facilitating targeted improvements in crop performance. Collectively, these innovations are transforming crop improvement into an integrated, data-driven, and predictive enterprise, where genetic gain is increasingly optimized as a precise and manageable outcome rather than a stochastic process. Despite their transformative potential, adoption remains limited by high infrastructure and operational costs, particularly in developing countries. Ultimately, integrating speed breeding, genomics, and digital technologies provides a transformative framework to accelerate genetic gain and deliver faster, smarter, and more resilient crop improvement for global food and nutritional security.

Sorghum is a climate-smart cereal crop inherently adapted to drought and heat stress, playing a vital role in ensuring global food and nutritional security. Despite its inherent tolerance to drought and heat stress, sorghum production is increasingly challenged by climate-driven stresses that impair critical morphophysiological processes and reduce yield stability. Drought and heat stress are among the most serious constraints to global food security, significantly limiting crop productivity and exacerbating vulnerability in already food-insecure regions under the intensifying impacts of climate change. Drought limits sorghum growth and biomass by reducing cell expansion, whereas heat accelerates development and leaf senescence, together shortening grain filling and decreasing yield. Drought and heat stresses frequently co-occur in sorghum, leading to leaf rolling, leaf firing, and premature senescence, which significantly reduce yield. While drought promotes deeper and more extensive root growth to enhance water uptake, heat stress negatively affects root growth and function. Physiologically, drought limits photosynthesis through stomatal closure and reduced carbon assimilation, whereas heat stress impairs photosystem II, enhances photorespiration, and disrupts thylakoid membrane stability, collectively lowering photosynthetic efficiency. Both stresses reduce chlorophyll content, relative water content, and water-use efficiency, while increasing respiration rates and canopy temperature, leading to excessive carbohydrate depletion and restricted assimilate translocation to developing grains. At the cellular level, membrane integrity declines due to enhanced lipid peroxidation, resulting in increased electrolyte leakage and oxidative damage. Therefore, sorghum’s adaptive traits, such as deep rooting, efficient stomatal regulation, osmotic adjustment, robust antioxidant defenses, thick cuticles, and the stay-green phenotype, can be leveraged through integrated conventional and biotechnological breeding to develop climate-resilient, high-yielding, and nutrient-rich cultivars, thereby promoting sustainable food systems and contributing to SDG-2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG-13 (Climate Action) under increasingly frequent drought and heat stresses.

Sorghum plays a critical role in ensuring global food security, particularly in regions where both abiotic and biotic stresses severely affecting sorghum production. However, genotype x environment (G x E) interaction and spatial variation remain central problem in identifying, developing and recommending superior and stable sorghum genotypes for highland environments. To address these challenges, the present study aimed to identify and develop new, high yielding and stable sorghum genotypes across highland environments for yield and key agronomic traits. A total of 131 sorghum genotypes were scrutinized using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications in a row-column arrangement. Genotypic performance for grain yield, days to flowering and plant height was assessed using linear mixed model of spatial analysis to reduce spatial variation and further enhance selection efficiency. Across the six test environments, the best linear unbiased predictions (BLUPs) for grain yield ranged from 0.42 tha-1 (ETSC13383-2) at Hirna (HN21NVT) location to 8.3 tha-1 (ETSC13108-3) at Haramaya University (HU19PVT), with the overall mean grain yield varying from 2.2 tha-1 (Adelle) to 4.4 tha-1 (ETSC13153-3). The maximum grain yield was recorded from genotype ETSC13153-3 (4.4 tha-1), followed by ETSC300067 (4.1 tha-1), ETSC13367-1 (4.1 tha-1), ETSC300072 (4.1 tha-1), and ETSC13139-2 (4.0 tha-1), underscoring their superior performance across the tested environments. The genotype ETSC13153-3 outperformed the standard checks Dibaba, Jiru, and Adelle in terms of grain yield by 31.8 %, 38.64 %, and 50 %, respectively. Similarly, the genotypes ETSC300067, ETSC13367-1, and ETSC300072 demonstrated a 46.34 % grain yield advantage over the standard check Adelle, while the genotype ETSC13139-2 outperformed Adelle by 45 %. Additionally, the spatial genetic correlation analysis using heat map provided valuable insights into the relationships among trials, revealing strong positive, negative, and weak correlations of trials. Ultimately, the investigation signified that genotypes ETSC13153-3, ETSC300067, ETSC13367-1, ETSC300072, and ETSC131392 were among the highest-yielding and most stable performers across the six evaluated environments and demonstrated their potential for broad adaptation and recommendation in highland sorghum-growing regions. Given their outstanding performance, these genotypes are strong candidates for releasing as new commercial sorghum varieties in the near future. These genotypes hold significant potential for future sorghum improvement programs and are well suited for large-scale production in the highland regions of Ethiopia after an in-depth scrutiny of their superiority and yield stability over time across environments.

Sorghum has profound role in ensuring food security across the globe, especially in dry lowland regions. However, substantial sorghum productivity has been curtailed by severe and prolonged drought stress due to the limitation of climate smart and superior sorghum varieties for moisture stress areas of Ethiopia. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify and develop superior sorghum genotypes through investigating gene action and combining abilities for yield and agronomic traits. In total, 42 sorghum genotypes were assessed in alpha lattice design with two replication. There was considerable differences amongst genotypes for yield and agronomic characteristics. Best performing hybrids such as P-9534 × Melkam (6.32 tha−1), B6 × ICRS-14 (5.92 tha−1) TX-623 × ICRS-14 (5.88 tha−1), P9511 × Melkam (5.78 tha−1) and P-850341 × ICRS-14 (5.57tha−1) were identified with yield advantage of 32.49

Sorghum is a climate-resilient food security and nutrition crop, which has been produced as a staple food in the semi-arid tropical regions of the world. However, moisture stress is increasingly affecting sorghum performance, especially at the flowering stage when water availability is critical for grain filling, thus reducing the sorghum grain yield. Therefore, the experiment was conducted to identify the best-adapted superior sorghum genotypes and quantify genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance as percent of mean for yield and yield components of sorghum genotypes. An alpha lattice experimental design with two replications was used to assess 42 sorghum genotypes in total at Mieso and Kobo. The combined analyses of variance revealed the presence of substantial genetic variation among sorghum genotypes for yield and agronomic traits. Among the traits with high genotypic coefficients of variation and heritability observed for plant height, panicle width and panicle yield were linked with higher values of genetic advance as a percentage of the mean. This result indicates that additive gene action governs the variability of these traits. High heritability and genetic advancement percentages were obtained for plant height (95.63 and 45.39 %, respectively), 1000-seed weight (77.98 and 23.86 %, respectively), panicle exertion (74.87 and 51.88 %, respectively), and panicle yield (65.43 and 37.32 %, respectively). The maximum grain yield was obtained from genotype 4x14 (6.32 tha-1), followed by genotypes 8x15 (5.92 tha-1), 1x15 (5.88 tha-1), 13x14 (5.78 tha-1) and 6x15 (5.57 tha-1), with an average value of 5.00 tha-1, which was greater than the mean value of the check (ESH-4) (4.77 tha-1). In general, this study revealed wider genetic variability in the tested genotypes for different traits under moisture stress conditions. The selection and hybridization on these genotypes for a desired traits with high (H2) coupled with higher GCV and GAM will be effective to develop and select high yielding, stable and early sorghum genotypes. The results of this investigation would help determine the most pertinent genetic material and plan the subsequent breeding program to encourage efforts for varietal improvement. The most promising and potential genotypes that could be used commercially were identified by the study following an in-depth investigation of their superiority and yield stability over time across different parts of the country.

Sorghum is one of the most vital cereal crops well adapted to arid and semi-arid regions. However, its productivity remains low compared to its potential, primarily due to severe and recurrent drought stress. To develop climate-resilient sorghum hybrids, it is essential to understand the extent of heterosis and identify heterotic groups comprising drought-tolerant inbred lines. Therefore, this study was conducted to quantify the magnitude of heterosis and to classify sorghum inbred lines into heterotic groups using specific combining ability (SCA) and general combining ability (GCA) across multiple traits. A total of 42 sorghum genotypes were evaluated using an alpha lattice design with two replications across two environments during the 2019 cropping season. Significant genetic differences among genotypes were observed for the traits studied across locations. Several top-performing and well-adapted hybrids P-9534 ​× ​Melkam (6.32 ​t ​ha−1), B6 ​× ​ICRS-14 (5.92 ​t ​ha−1), TX-623 ​× ​ICRS-14 (5.88 ​t ​ha−1), P9511 ​× ​Melkam (5.78 ​t ​ha−1), and P-850341 ​× ​ICRS-14 (5.57 ​t ​ha−1) were identified as promising for moisture-stressed environments. Among these, B6 ​× ​ICRS-14 exhibited the highest mid-parent heterosis (112.41 ​%), TX-623 ​× ​ICRS-14 showed the highest better-parent heterosis (68.71 ​%), and P-9534 ​× ​Melkam recorded the highest standard heterosis (30.71 ​%) for grain yield. Heterotic grouping based on specific combining ability (SCA) classified the sorghum inbred lines into two distinct groups, while the general combining ability of multiple traits (HGCAMT) method identified three heterotic groups for the development of superior hybrid varieties. Combining ability-based heterotic grouping is a critical approach for identifying the most suitable parental lines for creating new, agronomically superior hybrids. Overall, several sorghum hybrids demonstrated superiority over their mid-parents, better-parents, and the standard check in terms of grain yield and key agronomic traits. Therefore, the hybrids P-9534 ​× ​Melkam, B6 ​× ​ICRS-14, TX-623 ​× ​ICRS-14, MARC3 ​× ​Melkam, MARC3 ​× ​ICRS-14, P-9511 ​× ​Melkam, and P-850341 ​× ​ICRS-14 were identified as superior performers with the potential to significantly increase sorghum productivity per unit area.

The development and selection of appropriate parents are prerequisites for sorghum hybrid variety development. The lack of a broad genetic base is the most significant constraint to sorghum crop improvement. The assignment of sorghum germplasm lines to appropriate heterotic groups is critical for increasing sorghum productivity. The experiment was conducted to determine the amount of standard heterosis and to categorize sorghum inbred lines into distinct heterotic groups. In the 2019 main cropping season, 42 sorghum genotypes were tested using an alpha-lattice design with two replications. Combined analysis of variance showed that there was a highly significant difference (p<0.01) among the genotypes for all studied traits. The maximum grain yield was obtained from the hybrids 4x14 (6.32 tha-1), followed by the hybrids 8x15 (5.92 tha-1), 1x15 (5.88 tha-1), 13x14 (5.78 tha-1) and 6x15 (5.57 tha-1), with an average value of 5.0 tha-1. Similarly, the 4x14 hybrid exhibited a maximum grain yield with 30.71% heterosis, which was greater than the standard check (ESH-4) for grain yield. The two heterotic (A and B) groups were identified based on their specific combining ability effects, whereas three heterotic groups were identified based on their general combining ability effects to develop superior hybrids from broad base and suitable parents. Finally, based on yield performance, heterotic response and combining ability estimates for grain yield and its components, the hybrid crosses 4x14, 8x15, 1x15, 11x14, 11x15, 13x14, and 6x15 were found to be the most promising and potential hybrids that could be exploited commercially after critical evaluation for their superiority and yield stability across locations over the years.

Abstract Narrow genetic base and lack of potential drought resistant sorghum genotypes are the major limiting factors for sorghum yield improvement under moisture stress areas. Therefore, the experiment was conducted to quantify the genetic variation available among sorghum genotypes for drought tolerance. A total of 42 sorghum genotypes were evaluated using alpha lattice experimental design with two replications at Mieso and Kobo during the cropping season of 2019. The combined analyses of variance revealed the presence of substantial genetic variation among sorghum genotypes for all the studied traits. Among the traits with high genotypic coefficient of variation and heritability estimate, plant height, panicle exersion and panicle yield were linked with higher values of genetic advance as percentage of mean, reflecting the variability of these traits is controlled by additive gene action. The high heritability and genetic advance as percent of mean were obtained for plant height (95.63 and 45.39%), 1000 seed weight (77.98 and 23.86%), panicle exertion (74.87 and 51.88%), and panicle yield (65.43 and 37.32%) in the same order. The maximum grain yield was obtained from a hybrid 4x14 (6.32 tha− 1) followed by hybrid 8x15(5.92 tha− 1), 1x15 (5.88 tha− 1), 13x14 (5.78 tha− 1) and 6x15 (5.57 tha− 1) with the average value of 5.00 tha− 1 which had higher mean value than the mean of the parents and the check (ESH-4). In general, this study showed the existence of genetic variability in sorghum genotypes for different traits grown under moisture stress condition, providing opportunity to select several promising genotypes with key traits to drought tolerance.

The success of a plant-breeding program greatly depends on the right choice of parents for hybridization and the gene action of different economic traits. Genetic variation is a key component in broadening gene pools in any given crop population and is critical to the success of yield improvement programs. However, limited genetic variation and a lack of potential parents and hybrids are the most limiting factors for improving sorghum in moisture-stressed areas.Therefore, this study was conducted to estimate the combining abilities and determine the gene action governing the quantitative traits for yield and its components using a line x tester mating design. The experimental materials consisted of fifteen parents along with their twenty-six hybrids and one standard check. The experiment was performedusing an alpha lattice design with two replications at Mieso and Kobo during the main cropping season of 2019. For all of the traits studied, the combined analysis of variance indicated highly significant variations due to genotype, indicating the presence of considerable genetic variation among genotypes. Inbred lines 3 and 4 were selected as the best general combiners for both days to flowering and plant height traits, while inbred lines 2 and 7 were identified as the best general combiners for stay green traits based on general combining ability analysis. Thousand-seed weight was greatest for general combiners in inbred lines 6, 10 and 12. The hybrid crosses 4x14, 8x15 and 11x14 were identified as the best specific combiners for grain yield, while the hybrid 1x15 was the mostspecific combiner for days to flowering, days to maturity, panicle length, panicle width and thousand-seed weight. The estimates of general and specific combining ability revealed the preponderance of nonadditivegene action since the ratio of general combining ability to specific combining ability was less than unity for all the traits under study except for plant height. Eventually, Inbred lines 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 and hybrid crosses 4x14, 8x15, 1x15, 11x14, 11x15, 13x14, and 6x15 were found to be the most promising and potential genotypes that could be exploited commercially after critical evaluation for superiority and yield stability across locations over the years, based on combining ability estimates and the nature of gene action for grain yield and its components.

The most important prerequisite in sorghum crop improvement is the identification of suitable parents that can combine well and produce superior hybrids. However, a narrow genetic base, lack of potential hybrids and lack of information on the genetic components are the most important limiting factors for sorghum yield improvement. Therefore, the experiment was conducted to estimate the combining abilities and heterosis for yield and agronomic traits. A total of 42 sorghum genotypes were evaluated using an alpha lattice experimental design with two replications at Mieso and Kobo during the cropping season of 2019. Combined analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences due to genotypes for days to flowering, plant height, days to maturity, effective productive tillers, panicle exersion, panicle length, panicle width, panicle yield, grain yield and thousand seed weight traits. Based on general combining ability analysis, inbred lines P-9505 and P-9534 were identified as the best general combiners for both days to flowering and plant height traits; whereas inbred lines P-9501 and B5 were identified as the best general combiners for stay green traits. The hybrid crosses P-9534 x Melkam, B6 x ICRS-14 and MARC3 x Melkam were identified as the best specific combiners for grain yield, while the hybrid TX-623 x ICRS-14 was the best specific combiner for days to flowering, days to maturity, panicle length, panicle width and thousand-seed weight. The estimates of general and specific combining ability revealed the preponderance of non-additive gene action since the ratio of general combining ability to specific combining ability was less than unity for all the traits under study except for plant height. The maximum grain yield was obtained from the hybrids P-9534 x Melkam (6.32 tha-1), followed by the hybrids B6 x ICRS-14 (5.92 tha-1), TX-623 x ICRS-14 (5.88 tha-1), P9511 x Melkam (5.78 tha-1) and P-850341 x ICRS-14 (5.57 tha-1). Among the hybrids, B6 x ICRS-14 exhibited (112.41 %) yield advantage over the mid parents, hybrid TX-623 x ICRS-14 exhibited (68.71 %) yield advantage over the better parent, whereas P-9534 x Melkam exhibited (30.71 %) yield advantage over the standard check for grain yield. Finally, based on the mean yield performance, heterosis response and combining ability estimates for grain yield and its components, the hybrid crosses P-9534 x Melkam, B6 x ICRS-14, TX-623 x ICRS-14, MARC3 x Melkam, MARC3 x ICRS-14, P9511 x Melkam and P-850341xICRS-14 were found to be the most promising and potential hybrids that could be exploited commercially after critical evaluation for their superiority and yield stability across locations over the years.

Plant proteomics is the study of proteins' relationships, functions, compositions, and architectures, as well as their biological functions. It gives a greater grasp of the organism's structure and function than genomics. An organism's or system's proteome is the total set of proteins it produces or modifies. Proteomics allows an ever-increasing number of proteins to be identified. This changes with time and in response to different demands or pressures that a cell or organism faces. This method can be used to determine protein changes during plant development, including somaclonal variation. Although far more difficult than genomics, proteomics is one of the most important methodologies for understanding gene function. Proteomics has a large and diverse range of applications. Many functional genomics techniques, such as microarray-based expression profiles and systematic phenotypic profiles at the organism level, benefit from proteomics. The integration of these proteomics data with bioinformatics methodologies will expose the functional aspects of the genes, which will finally represent protein properties and activities, allowing researchers and plant breeders to fully comprehend the genetic trait of interest. Plant proteomics is so critical in today's crop development effort. Proteomic approaches can be used to study biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in different germplasm or cultivars, as well as to assess small changes in protein expression levels in response to selective breeding. The goal of this review is to assess proteomic research, types, and applications in crop production in general.

Abstract The ultimate purpose of a crop improvement program is to develop high yielding cultivars with desirable traits for farmers. However farmers in marginal areas still grow low-yielding, disease- and pest-prone sorghum land-races. In order to address the issues of farmers' selection criteria, an experiment was conducted at Hirna and Chiro with the objectives of evaluating adaptability and identifying farmers' preferred traits. During the 2019 main cropping season, a total of six sorghum varieties were evaluated using a randomized complete block design. Direct-matrix and pair-wise ranking algorithms were used to evaluate farmers at the flowering and maturity developmental stages. Grain yield, biomass, seed color, disease resistance, and seed size characteristics were given priority by farmers when evaluating and selecting their preferred varieties. At a 1% probability level, the combined analysis of variance results revealed the existence of highly significant genetic variation among varieties for all the traits under study. The maximum grain yield was obtained from Dibaba (11.375tha-1) and Jiru (10.175tha-1) varieties, which were also, identified as the superior improved sorghum varieties by field experiment and farmer visual observation. The correlation between grain yield and days to 50% flowering (0.91**), days to maturity (0.73**), and thousand seed weight (0.91**) was positive and highly significant. Based on the preferences of farmers as a whole, Dibaba and Jiru were ranked first and second and followed by Adelle, Chiro, and ETS2752 respectively. As a result, farmers' evaluations and the result of field experiments led to the choice of the varieties Dibaba and Jiru due to their superior performance compared to the other varieties. Dibaba and Jiru improved sorghum varieties were thus recommended for multiplication and distribution to farmers through both formal and informal seed systems as the experiment's result. In general, plant breeders and farmers' perspectives were combined to boost acceptance rates and make effective breeding programs for future improvement.

: The difference in genotype response to different environments is referred to as genotype-by-environment interaction. Due to scaling or re-ranking effects, there are two basic types of genotype-by-environment interaction. The scaling effect is linked to the variance of characteristics in different environments. The assessment of genetic correlations between performances in different environments is a measure of the re-ranking genotype-by-environment interaction effect. The presence of genotype-by-environment interaction indicates that the phenotypic manifestation of a character is influenced by both environmental factors and the genotype. The presence of genotype-by-environment interactions has long presented a serious impediment to gaining a better understanding of the genetic control of variability. They have made it difficult to evaluate evolutionary trends and have inhibited the rationalization of breeding strategies and methods for improved commercial crop performance. The genetic variation in phenotypic plasticity is known as genotype-by-environment interaction, and it is a key concept in ecology and evolutionary biology. A genotype-by-environment interaction has far-reaching implications for trait development and determining how varieties will respond to changes in the environment. Interactions between genotypes and their environments impact the genetic architecture of quantitative traits and are confounding factors in genetic investigations. In general, the presence of genotype-by-environment interaction makes choosing superior genotypes more difficult. The presence of genotype-by-environment interaction makes superior genotype selection more difficult, and understanding the environmental and genotypic causes of considerable genotype-by-environment interaction is critical at all phases of plant breeding. In-plant breeding, genotype-by-environment interaction is a key factor in producing superior genotypes for specific environments. In-plant breeding, the presence of genotype-environment interaction manifests itself as either inconsistent responses of some genotypes relative to others as a result of genotypic rank change or changes in the absolute differences between genotypes without rank change. A plant breeding program's success is determined by its ability to provide farmers with genotypes that are guaranteed to perform best in terms of production and quality under a variety of environmental conditions. The expression of a phenotype is determined by the genotype, the environment, and the genotype by environment interaction, which is defined as the differential responsiveness of specific genotypes to different environments. Genotype by environment interaction is a statistical decomposition of variance that assesses the relative performance of genotypes produced in various environments. The effects of genotype, environment, and genotype-environment interaction impact phenotypic performance as well as general and particular adaptability to various environments

Sorghum is a critical crop especially in semiarid areas where there is inadequate moisture.it is the fifth important crop among the cereals. Sorghum is a C4 plant which is originated and diversified in Ethiopia. It is used for feed, fuel, and consumed by human beings in the form of enjera, boiled porridge or gruel, malted beverages, beer, popped grain, and chips. In Ethiopia, biotic, socioeconomic, and abiotic restrictions limit sorghum production and productivity. Drought, Striga, disease, insect pests and etc are major problems Sorghum breeding program Melkassa Agricultural Research Center, which is part of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Institute, is in charge of coordination in Ethiopia. National and regional sorghum improvement programs have released many open-pollinated and hybrid sorghum varieties for Ethiopia’s various agro-ecological zones. Nowadays to feed the world population the production and productivity of sorghum should be increased. As a result, the aim of this review is to evaluate the progress, successes, and challenges of sorghum production and productivity in Ethiopia.

: Estimating genetic gains in sorghum is necessary to assess whether the current rates of improvement will meet future production demands. In crop plants, the term “F1 hybrid” is usually reserved for agricultural cultivars derived from two different parent cultivars, each of which are inbred for a number of generations to the extent that they are almost homozygous. Crossing two genetically different plants produces a hybrid seed by means of controlled pollination. To produce consistent F1 hybrids, the original cross must be repeated for each season. The divergence between the parent lines promotes improved growth and yield characteristics, while the homozygosity of the parent lines ensures a phenotypically uniform F1 generation. Sorghum hybrid development involves development of parental lines based on a cytoplasmic male sterile system including the pollen parent (R-line) and seed parents (A- and B-lines). New parental lines are developed by recombining existing elite parental lines to create new breeding populations or by adding specific traits of interest to existing parental lines by crossing elite lines with donor parents. Male sterility has been generated in sorghum mostly through mechanical and genetic mechanisms, with chemical treatments used sparingly. Mechanical sterility production is limited to small-scale seed production, while genetic male sterility is restricted to certain germplasm. Large numbers of seed could be produced with a chemical hybridizing agent that was not limited by genotypes. To create new hybrid combinations, newly created parental lines are crossed with other elite parental lines or with each other. The evaluation of the parental lines used to create novel hybrids aids in determining the produce ability and prospective cost of goods, both of which have a direct impact on the commercial release of new hybrid items. The cytoplasmic male sterility system has been widely utilized to increase sorghum output by exploiting heterosis. To efficiently deploy male sterility inducing cytoplasm, restorers and lines those are suitable for conversion to male. The pollen parent (R-line) and seed parents (A- and B-lines) are developed as parental lines based on a cytoplasmic male sterile system in sorghum hybrid development. New parental lines are formed by combining existing elite parental lines to develop new breeding populations or by crossing elite lines with donor parents to add specific traits of interest to existing parental lines.

In the development of agricultural crops, biotic and abiotic stresses result in considerable yield losses. One of the main obstacles to agricultural production and global food security is abiotic stress. Stress is a word that refers to several biotic and abiotic environmental factors that prevent crop plants from reaching their full genetic potential. Drought is one of the fundamental issues in the current climatic environment and is one of the most severe abiotic stresses in many areas of the world. Plants experience moisture stress when their evapotranspiration requirements are not met. Drought has a negative impact on plant development and other metabolic processes, making it one of the most significant abiotic stresses and factors restricting the successful production of plant products globally. Drought is caused by a lack of water as a result of erratic rainfall or inadequate irrigation, but it can also be hampered by other elements such as soil salinity, physical characteristics, and excessive air or soil temperatures. Insufficient water supply throughout a crop's life cycle, including precipitation and the capability of the soil to store moisture, limits the crop's potential to produce the highest possible genetic grain yield. The most significant stressor that has a significant impact on crop development and productivity is without a doubt drought. For better management, it is crucial to comprehend the physiological, biochemical, and ecological actions connected to these stresses. It is possible to generalize morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses to a broad range of plant responses to this stress. Due to physical damage, physiological disruptions, and biochemical alterations, inadequate water supplies and abnormal temperatures have a severe impact on crop growth and yields. Drought stress reduces the size of the leaves, stem extension, and root proliferation within the soil; it also disturbs plant water relations and reduces water-use efficiency, which in turn reduces the plant's ability to yield; as a result, breeding for drought resistance is a good approach. This approach combines conventional and molecular methods to develop a drought-tolerant variety. Breeding more drought-tolerant cultivars may be more successful when selection is based on a thorough testing strategy. Practical implications for treatments and management result from a greater understanding of how plants react to this stress. High demand for drought-tolerant types would seem to be a difficult issue for plant breeders, but difficulties are aggravated by the difficulty of crop yield on a genetic and physiological basis. Food security is seriously threatened by drought, which is the main reason for agricultural loss worldwide. Plant biotechnology is currently one of the most promising areas for creating crops that can generate large amounts of food in moisture environments.

Over half a billion people in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia utilize sorghum as a staple food. It grows in semi-arid to desert environments around the world. Grain sorghum's adaptation to a wide range of environmental conditions has resulted in the evolution and existence of considerable sorghum genetic polymorphism for drought tolerance. As a result, sorghum is expected to play an increasingly important role in agriculture and meeting global food demand in the face of climate change, land degradation, and increased water shortages. Drought is a complicated phenomenon that affects agricultural production all around the world. It is the world's largest sorghum production constraint, resulting in high yield losses every year. Plant breeders continue to face challenges despite decades of research. To reduce the negative effects of drought and boost production, it is vital for breeding to underestimate the genetics and physiological systems that underpin drought resistance. The sorghum crop requires less water than other important cereals such as maize and wheat. The crop's yield potential, however, has been severely hampered by drought and heat stress. Drought causes plants to reprogram their gene expression, which controls a range of biochemical and physiological processes. Sorghum is a drought-resistant crop that is increasingly being utilized as a model grain for identifying tolerance genes. Furthermore, drought resistance varies greatly across different sorghum genotypes due to natural variation. Sorghum is the world's most significant cereal crop, with great drought tolerance and adaptability. Plant breeding requires the identification and characterization of sorghum germplasm that has desired traits for genetic improvement. Sorghum is a high-yielding, nutrient-efficient, and drought-tolerant crop that can be grown on more than 80% of the world's farmland. Drought is a significant limiting factor for agriculture, and it is the leading cause of crop yield reduction. The identification of genetic factors involved in plant responses to drought stress will pave the way for breeding drought-resistant plants. Sorghum is one of the most significant food and feed crops in the world's arid and semi-arid regions due to its excellent drought tolerance. Sorghum is a valuable resource for the economic growth of the country, therefore determining the genetic diversity of current sorghum germplasm is critical for improved conservation, utilization, and crop improvement. Generally, sorghum is a drought-resistant crop that supports the livelihoods of millions of people residing in isolated regions.