The Mediterranean region faces severe water scarcity exacerbated by climate change. The reuse of treated industrial wastewater for industrial processes or agricultural irrigation offers a sustainable mitigation strategy, yet its implementation is hindered by low social acceptance and institutional fragmentation. This study aims to enhance treated wastewater reuse (TWWR) uptake within the textile and pharmaceutical sectors in Türkiye and Tunisia through structured stakeholder engagement, hydrological modelling, simulation, and co-design of preferred strategies. Data were collected from regional water authorities, industries, farmers, and civil society, chosen based on their influence, interest, and capacity regarding integrated water management. A Participatory Adaptive Planning framework was applied across three co-designed workshops per site, and interviews. Data were charted using the Natural Assurance Schemes Business Canvas and a conceptual visual support framework. Stakeholders identified key barriers, including legislative gaps in Türkiye and financial capabilities and farmer reluctance in Tunisia. Through the conceptual visual support framework, holistic strategies combining TWWR, water savings, urban treated wastewater quality improvement by tertiary treatment, desalination, and Managed Aquifer Recharge were co-created, simulated and ranked. Technological innovation in wastewater treatment is insufficient without robust “social readiness”. Participatory governance effectively aligns environmental engineering solutions with societal needs, establishing a foundation for resilient and integrated water management action plans.

This study evaluated the spatiotemporal variations in the physicochemical, bacteriological, and parasitological quality of treated wastewater (TWW) from the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to the agricultural experimentation unit (AEU) of Oued Souhil, Tunisia. TWW samples were collected from nine sites, including the outlets of the WWTPs, pumping tanks (SP3,SP4), the regulation, storage and settling basins, the effluent used for irrigation after filtration and before injection into the drippers. The quality parameters for final effluent TWW ranged as follows: pH (6.94-9.64), EC (2.14-3.47 mS/cm), TSS (20.0-60.0 mg/L), BOD5 (10.0-69.0 mg O2/L), COD (63.0-440.0 mg O2/L), and thermotolerant coliforms (0.3-3 x 103 MPN/100 mL). Results revealed that 54.5 % of COD, 80 % of BOD5, 37.5 % of TSS, and 45 % of EC and pH values exceeded national and international TWW reuse standards. While Ascaris spp., Trichuris spp., and Ancylostomides were absent, the presence of Taeniid eggs and protozoan cysts indicated potential sanitary risks. TWW quality varied along with the distribution network, reflecting intermittent inefficiencies in system performance and management. These findings underscore the need for continuous monitoring and optimization to ensure the safe agricultural reuse of TWW in downstream areas.

This review assessed two cross-cutting layers integrating the impacts of climate change and water availability, with five dimensions: governance, technical performance, environmental and health aspects, social acceptance, and economic feasibility. The analysis aimed to evaluate their influence on treated wastewater (TWW) reuse in Tunisia and Jordan. Although Tunisia produces 293 Mm 3/year of TWW and operates 127 wastewater treatment plants, only 3.4% (10.0 Mm 3/year) is reused, whereas Jordan achieves a higher reuse rate of 90% (178.2 Mm 3/year), supplying 98.4% of irrigation water in the Jordan Valley. This difference is attributed to variability in treatment technologies, quality compliance with standards, and institutional regimes. Jordan's application of tertiary treatment and its adherence to the JS 893/2022 standard enabled a higher reuse rate. In contrast, Tunisia still relies heavily on secondary treatment (77.2%) with limited tertiary treatment coverage, and it is under NT 106.03/1989 application for agricultural reuse. Tunisian farmers exhibited a greater level of acceptability, but lower institutional trust than their Jordanian counterparts. Financial advantages, regulatory coherence, and awareness campaigns are the major factors influencing farmer acceptance. The framework clarifies why TWW reuse adoption varies between both countries, highlighting the importance of a practical strategy for addressing long-term water security and agricultural development.

The Persian Gulf hosts the second-largest population of Dugongs. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists them as Vulnerable to Extinction species. Incidental fishing, vessel strikes, environmental pollution, habitat degradation, and infectious diseases currently threaten these sirenians. While research focused on the abovementioned threats, little is known about pathogen infections, particularly waterborne parasites. The current study aimed to investigate the prevalence of the waterborne parasites, namely Blastocystis, Cryptosporidium, Dientamoeba fragilis, Giardia duodenalis, and Toxoplasma gondii in the Qatar Dugongs population. Hence, twenty-three tissues from stranded Dugongs' carcasses were collected postmortem and subjected to DNA extraction and parasite qPCR screening. Only Blastocystis and Cryptosporidium species were detected in different tissues across the tested animals harboring genotypes ST1 and Cryptosporidium hominis IbA9G3, respectively, with the first-time report of Blastocystis sp. within sirenian hosts. Continuous monitoring should be provided to shed lights about the contamination sources of these endangered species and clarify the zoonotic potential transmission routes between wildlife and humans.

The present study aimed to evaluate self-assessment, behaviors and attitudes of students toward food wastage in a Tunisian University cafeteria. An online survey based on a structured questionnaire was conducted on 162 student respondents during two weeks in January 2021. Information on awareness and attitudes toward food waste, food purchase behavior and self-estimation of food waste in the cafeteria, and recommendations to reduce food waste were collected. Most respondents were women (82

This review explores our understanding of Giardia and Cryptosporidium distribution in Middle East and North African (MENA) water resources. Results emphasize that Cryptosporidium species (sp.) and G. duodenalis (oo)cysts are present in distinct categories of water in 10 MENA countries. Cryptosporidium sp. proportional prevalence in the MENA region was 24.5% (95% CI 16.3-33.8), while G. duodenalis prevalence was 37.7% (95% CI 21.9-55.1). Raw wastewater and surface water were the water categories most significantly impacted. Both parasites were reported in the various types of MENA drinking waters. The most frequent species/genotypes reported were C. hominis, C. parvum, and G. duodenalis assemblage A. Despite the high prevalence of (oo)cysts reported, we should consider the absence of waterborne outbreaks. This indicates significant underestimation and underreporting of both parasites in MENA. Stakeholders should apply water contamination legislation to eradicate Cryptosporidium sp. and G. duodenalis (oo)cysts from water resources/categories. HIGHLIGHTS Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis (oo)cysts are found in all water supplies of MENA. High contamination of the raw wastewater and surface water samples. MENA drinking waters are contaminated with both parasites. The treatment processes are not efficient in eradicating parasites from water. Cryptosporidium sp. and G. duodenalis are underreported and underestimated.

Treated wastewater (TWW) reuse in agriculture offers a solution to water shortage, enhances crop production, and supports environmental sustainability. This study assessed TWW quality across Tunisia. Surveys and analyses of five physicochemical (total suspended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand over five days (BOD5), cadmium, and lead) and five microbiological (faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, Salmonella spp., Vibrio cholerae, and helminths eggs) parameters were conducted on 81 samples from 27 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2017-2018). Compliance with standards was found in 11.11% (COD), 14.80% (BOD5), and 18.50% (TSS) of WWTPs. Cadmium, lead, and V. cholerae were fully removed. However, faecal indicators did not meet standards. Maps and multiple correspondence analysis confirmed a need for better treatment and tertiary processes to eliminate microbiological contamination.

Surface waters are usually exposed to industrial, urban, and agricultural wastes. This study assessed the water and the sediments quality of the important primary watercourse in Tunisia and the principal source of domestic and irrigation purposes, the Medjerda River. Water samples were analyzed for total suspended solids, calcium, magnesium, total hardness, carbonates, bicarbonates, residual sodium hazard, and magnesium hazard. They were collected from five sampling sites along the Medjerda watercourse from upstream to downstream through two campaigns, one at the end of the moist period and the other at the half of the dry one in line with irrigation. The presence of high concentrations of (i) magnesium, which varied from 25.51 to 61.65 mg l-1 for the moist period and from 27.58 to 133.10 mg l-1 for the dry one; (ii) carbonates that varied from 18.0 mg l-1for the two campaigns to respectively 49.8 and 66.0 mg l-1 for the humid and the dry periods and (iii) total hardness that varied from 646.5 to 1043.0 mg l-1 for the moist period and from 503.0 to 741.0 mg l-1 for the dry one could in the future pose threats and toxicity to soil and plants when the water will be continuously used for irrigation. Sediments samples were also collected, and their contamination by heavy metals was assessed through two indicators: contamination factor (CF) and pollution load index. Results depicted severe metal contamination mainly from cadmium, of which CF varied from 3.33 to 22.66. Protection of Medjerda River and its tributaries is compulsory to prevent the apparent deterioration of its water quality.

Wastewater sludge represents an important resource for reuse in agriculture. However, potentially harmful pathogens are a main threat in this context. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the presence of helminth ova and protozoan cysts in dried sewage sludge samples collected from ten wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) located in eight governorates in Tunisia. Based on morphological criteria, protozoan cysts of Giardia spp., Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii, and Entamoeba coli, were detected in all dried sludge composite samples (N = 116) from the investigated WWTPs. The mean concentration ranged from 1.4 to 10.7 cysts per 100 g dry matter (DM). The identified helminth eggs were Ascaris spp., Strongyles, Taeniid eggs, Hymenolepis nana, Enterobius vermicularis, and hookworm species. Ascaris spp. and Taeniid eggs were detected in 56.9 and 74.1% of analyzed samples, respectively. The presence of Trichuris spp., Hymenolepis diminuta, and Toxocara spp. eggs in dried sewage sludge samples was low (0.9, 1.7, and 2.6%, respectively). The mean concentration of helminth eggs during the three-year study was less than 1 egg/100 g DM. All examined dried sewage sludge sample contents were below the WHO (2006) and US EPA (2003) recommendations, and thus, the sludge can potentially be reused in agriculture.

The present study aims the assessment of surface water and sediment qualities of the transboundary Medjerda River and its tributaries, influenced by industrial, urban, and agricultural wastes. Surface water samples, taken from five control points during humid and dry periods, were analyzed for physico-chemical, heavy metals, by atomic absorption, and bacteriological parameters (most probable number technique (MPN)). The highest values obtained respectively during the humid and the dry periods were 8.08 and 8.05 for pH; 5300 and 6440 μS cm-1 for conductivity; 1320 and 1325.21 mg L-1 for chloride; 3.22 and 4.37 mg L-1 for nitrates; 4240 and 5152 mg L-1 for total dissolved solids; 7.1.104 and 5.18.106 MPN /100 ml for fecal coliforms; 3.82.104 and 7.59.105 MPN/100 ml for Escherichia coli; and 6.99.102 and 9.25.106 MPN/100 ml for fecal streptococci. In parallel, sediments were assessed (n=4) for metallic and bacteriological contamination. Results of the calculation of the geo-accumulation index, enrichment factor, ecological risk, and risk index depicted severe metal contamination mainly by lead and cadmium, particularly in the Kasseb tributary. Anthropogenic activities are the main origins of metal pollution. The study also proves that the Medjerda ecosystem suffers from severe bacteriological contamination, expressed in MPN per Dry Matter (DM) (4.26 108 MPN g-1 of DM for fecal coliforms and 4.57 108 MPN g-1 of DM for fecal streptococci). Two water quality indexes (CCME-WQI and AWQI) were used, for the first time, to ascertain the overall quality and the suitability of the Medjerda River water for drinking. Both argued on its poor and unsuitable quality. The extent of the assessed pollution implies that the situation is frightening to the biota and its users. Regular quality assessment of this ecosystem is compulsory to control its pollution and to guarantee human health safety.

Private cisterns or underground tanks may be at risk for certain types of contamination associated with adverse health effects. This first and preliminary study evaluated the parasitological quality of drinking water stored in home-based cisterns in rural areas in seven delegations of the Kairouan Governorate in the center of Tunisia. The practices of water management and hygiene were also surveyed in addition to details related to the age and the kind of material used to make these home-based tanks. To achieve this purpose, 39 samples from five different sources—(i) rain water, (ii) truck cisterns, (iii) a mix of these two, (iv) wells, and (v) stored tap water—were collected and examined for the presence of parasites using the Bailenger modified technique. Microscopic/morphological analysis showed the presence of three gastrointestinal protozoa: Giardia duodenalis (10–380 cysts/L), Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii (30–400 cysts/L), and Entamoeba coli (20–200 cysts/L). These protozoa were prevalent in all the five water sources examined. One species of helminths was also detected (Ascaris spp.). The high concentrations of the protozoa cysts found could be correlated with the lack of hygiene, sanitation practices, and education. No statistical correlations were demonstrated with the age or kind of water. Thus, the current situation highlights the need for the frequent monitoring of water microbiological quality in these rural areas. Further studies are needed to determine the true prevalence and pathogenic potential of these and other pathogenic species.

This article reviews the current knowledge about prevalence, transmission and occurrence of selected helminths (Ascaris spp. and Taenia spp.) and protozoa (Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp. and Entamoeba histolytica) in the environment among three countries of North Africa: Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria. This review emphasizes the need of the implementation of a routine and governmental surveillance systems in these settings and assure a protection against the raise and spread of waterborne diseases that could be amplified with water crisis and climate change.

In recent decades, a pressure on water resources has increased at a same time of demand increase in the world and particularly in Tunisia.

Limited access to safe water enhances poverty, hunger and diseases. This study evaluated the drinking water quality stored in home-based systems, located in rural areas of Tunisia. Water management was also documented as an improvement of good practice as most of the water contamination could be related to behavioral patterns. Thirty-nine water samples from five different sources (rainwater, truck cistern, mix, etc.) were screened for enteric parasitic contamination with the modified Bailenger technique. This technique allowed the detection of three protozoa: Giardia spp.; Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii; Entamoeba coli and one helminth specie: Ascaris spp. The overall prevalence of these intestinal parasites was approximately 97% with a relatively high frequency of protozoa over helminths and more specifically E. histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii. This incidence could be correlated to the lack of hygiene practices, sanitation and education. This situation requires the need for frequent monitoring of the water quality and management in these areas.

The present study aimed to: (i) identify helminth eggs and protozoan cysts in wastewater samples to which both human and animals could be exposed when they are reused in agriculture; and (ii) evaluate the efficiency of their removal by two wastewater treatment systems (activated sludge and lagoon). For these purposes, 234 wastewater samples (117 raw, 117 treated) were collected from 20 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Tunisia over a one-year sampling period. Parasitic load was enumerated by the modified Bailenger method. The results showed that helminth eggs found were Nematodes mainly represented by Ascaris sp. (95%), Hookworm species (50%), and Enterobius vermicularis (45%). For Cestodes, species identified were Taeniid eggs (85%), Hymenolepis nana (70%), Hymenolepis diminuta (55%) and digestive Strongyles. Among protozoa, Giardia sp., Entamoeba histolytica / dispar/moshkovskii and Entamoeba coli cysts were found in 100% of raw wastewater samples. The overall removal efficiency of helminth eggs and protozoan cysts in the treatment plants ranged from 56.5 to 100% and from 50.4 to 95.5%, respectively. The result from Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) shows that the close clustering of the parasitic mean removal levels indicates that there is little difference in wastewater treatment processes between the WWTPs examined.

This study aims to follow the photodynamic and spectroscopic properties of dianionic rose Bengal disodium salt (RB) on Staphylococus aureus ( S. aureus ) in phosphate buffer solution (PBS) at pH 7.3. It focused on: (1) the effect of several reactive oxygen species (ROS) antioxidants used [such as sodium azide (NaN 3 ), l -tryptophan ( l -Trp) and d -mannitol] on the RB photodynamic efficiency as a mean to identify the main ROS attributed, and (2) the possible interactions of the RB with the important singlet oxygen quencher used namely tryptophan and/or between the dye and the bacteria S. aureus thanks to a spectroscopic study. The results showed that 20 µM of RB and 10 min of visible light (50 mW/cm 2 ) with a light fluence dose of 30 J/cm 2 are crucial for a good photodynamic action, achieving a reduction of 79.4% in the viability. Rose Bengal photodynamic action was in part inhibited by D-mannitol and l -Trp, indicating the mediation by.OH and 1 O 2 , respectively. The high inhibition of the RB activity against S. aureus by l -Trp is not due only to its singlet oxygen quencher ability but it is mainly due to the interaction between RB and l -Trp as shown spectrophotometrically.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the photobactericidal effect of four photosensitizers (PSs) with different structural and physico-photochemical properties, namely mesotetracationic porphyrin (T4MPyP), dianionic rose Bengal (RB), monocationic methylene blue (MB) and neutral red (NR). Their photokilling activity was tested in vitro on pathogenic bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) suspended in nutrient broth (NB) and in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) through following their influence on the PSs antimicrobial efficacy. Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) experiments were performed using visible light (L) and different PSs concentrations (20-70 μM). The ability of these PSs to mediate bacterial photodynamic inactivation was investigated as a function of type of PS and its concentrations, spectral and physico-chemical properties, bacterial strain, irradiation time and suspending medium. Indeed, they showed antibacterial effects against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa with significant difference in potency. Staphylococcus aureus suspended in NB showed 0.92 log units reduction in viable count in the presence of T4MPyP at 20 μM. Changing the suspending medium from NB to PBS, S. aureus was successfully photoinactivated by T4MPyP (20 μM) when suspended in PBS at least time exposure (10 and 30 min), followed by MB and RB.

The microbial diversity of wastewater used for irrigation and fertilization was assessed using specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays to detect and genotype several pathogenic protists including Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Cyclospora spp., Eimeria spp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi. A total of 220 wastewater samples (110 raw, 110 treated) and 12 sludge samples were collected from 2005 to 2008 from 18 treatment plants located throughout Tunisia. Except for Cyclospora, which was detected only once, E. bieneusi (61%), G. duodenalis (28%), Cryptosporidium spp. (27%) and Eimeria spp. (45%) were frequently observed in wastewater and sludge. Sequencing of PCR products showed that C. hominis, C. andersoni, G. duodenalis sub-assemblage A-II and E. bieneusi genotypes D and IV were the most prevalent. An analysis of the distribution of 209 internal transcribed spacer sequences of E. bieneusi originating from wastewater at the 18 treatment plants showed a similar genetic diversity, regardless of the geographical location. The identification of these parasite species and genotypes and of host-specific Eimeria species indicates that the microbial quality of wastewater was impacted by humans, livestock and rodents. Given the public health risks that some of these parasites represent, guidelines on wastewater usage are needed to minimize human exposure to these pathogens.