Abstract Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly transforming constructed wetlands (CWs) from conventional treatment systems toward intelligent and adaptive environmental technologies. This review systematically evaluates the applications of AI in CWs using literature analysis and effect size analysis, with a focus on algorithm selection, treatment performance prediction, process optimization, and system assessment. The analysis identifies major applications of AI in CWs, including prediction of pollutant removal and treatment performance, optimization of wetland design and operational parameters, assessment of greenhouse gas emissions and emerging pollutants, interpretation of microbial community dynamics, and evaluation of wetland health. Different AI approaches show distinct advantages for addressing specific CW management challenges, highlighting the importance of matching algorithm characteristics with data types and process complexity. The integration of AI provides new opportunities to improve the prediction, optimization, monitoring, and adaptive management of CWs while enhancing understanding of complex biogeochemical processes. However, challenges related to data availability and quality, model interpretability, generalizability, and practical implementation remain. This review provides a framework for selecting and applying AI technologies in CWs and highlights priorities for developing more intelligent, reliable, and sustainable CW systems.

Science of phosphorus (P) retention, release, migration, transformation and reassimilation in constructed wetland (CWs) was revealed while sewage sludge biochar (SSB) was evaluated as a substrate in treating agricultural runoff. The study was designed to address the concern on P release in CWs practice, rather than P adsorption in CWs as many studied in the literature. SSB not only enabled efficient removal of conventional pollutants but also functioned as a dynamic internal P reservoir rather than a terminal P sink. P fractionation analysis showed that labile and moderately labile P constituted bioavailable pools supporting plant and microbial assimilation. Under P-deficient conditions, endogenous P release reflected the coupled regulation of reversible substrate adsorption, microbial transformation, and plant uptake, with moderately labile P as the primary source, mainly in metal-bound forms regulated by pH and dissolved oxygen. P limitation enhanced phosphatase activities, promoting organic P mineralization and bioavailability. Plant uptake dominated P translocation, while SSB increased microbial diversity and promoted a more compact microbial network, indicating enhanced microbial cooperation. These findings demonstrate that P retention in SSB-based CWs is governed by dynamic biogeochemical cycling rather than static sequestration.

Constructed wetland microbial fuel cell systems (CW-MFCs) integrate bioelectrochemical systems into wetlands, enabling the synergistic enhancement of pollutant removal and bioelectricity generation. Within CW-MFCs, the electrode spacing, defined as the spatial distance between the anode and cathode, represents a pivotal architectural parameter that directly conditions systemic performance. This review outlines the coupling mechanism between CWs and MFCs, and critically examines the multi-faceted variables dictating optimal electrode configurations. Based on a comprehensive analysis of literature data from CW-MFCs published over the past fifteen years (2012∼2025), electrode spacing exhibits a positive correlation with the removal of total nitrogen (TN, n = 42, Spearman’s ρ=0.4157, p < 0.05) and total phosphorus (TP, n = 38, Spearman’s ρ=0.3088, p < 0.05), while correlating negatively with internal resistance and overall bioenergy output. Moreover, its impacts on organic matter, ammonia nitrogen, and coulombic efficiency exhibit highly confounded, non-linear dynamics. Capitalizing on these performance correlations, we conceptualize fit-for-purpose design strategies to optimize electrode spacing tailored to specific operational targets. Additionally, the development of novel CW-MFC systems is discussed, with particular emphasis on the role of electrode spacing. To date, CW-MFC technology remains largely in the laboratory-scale development stage, and studies on the impact of electrode spacing on system performance are still in their early stages. To broaden the future application potential of CW-MFCs, more research is required to explore the role of electrode spacing in addressing bioclogging issues, resource recovery, and the development of mechanism-based mathematical models.

Alluvial wetlands are vital river components and crucial nodes of the carbon cycle, yet the response of their surface soil carbon pools to anthropogenically regulated hydrological rhythms is not fully understood. Surface soil samples were collected from the alluvial wetlands of the lower Yellow River (LYR) during three distinct hydrological seasons preceding and following a Water and Sediment Regulation Scheme (WSRS) event. The gradient acid hydrolysis method was used for carbon fractionation (labile carbon (LP-C) and recalcitrant carbon (RP-C) fractions) in soil, and water and soil physicochemical parameters were monitored to assess the effects of anthropogenic hydrological regulation on surface soil carbon content and stability within alluvial wetlands. Results indicated that total carbon and LP-C concentrations in the alluvial wetland soil reached their highest levels during the WSRS-imposed high-flow periods, with 13.75 +/- 2.47 g/kg and 7.34 +/- 3.18 g/kg, respectively. Further correlation analysis indicated that alterations in hydrologic conditions under WSRS primarily influence the composition and stability of soil carbon by modulating suspended sediment (SS) input fluxes and soil environmental characteristics. In light of these findings, under the scenario of increasingly intense anthropogenic regulation of hydrological rhythms, enhancing SS deposition, restoring wetland vegetation, and reducing soil respiration represent potential pathways to improve carbon pool capacity in alluvial wetlands. This study highlights the important role of anthropogenic hydrological regulation in wetland carbon storage and cycling processes, providing valuable insights for the river carbon budget of regulated river systems under changing environments.

Aniline wastewater presents substantial ecological hazards owing to its biological toxicity and environmental persistence. Bioaugmentation via electrical stimulation offers a promising approach to enhance algal-bacterial symbiosis for high-concentration aniline treatment, with efficacy hinging on voltage-dependent microbial regulation. Here, we constructed a photosynthetic bioelectrochemical system (E-ABS) with gradient voltage stimulation to address this challenge. All tested systems (E1: 1.2V; E2: 2.5V; E3: 3.8V) achieved aniline degradation, albeit at varying efficiencies, with total nitrogen (TN) removal efficiency of 79.56%, 81.58%, and 70.00%, respectively. Physiological and electrochemical analyses revealed that E1 exhibited limited bacterial electroactivity stimulation (Electron Transport System (ETS): 142 mg INTF/(g TSS·h)), whereas E2 optimized microalgal assimilation and bacterial nitrification-denitrification coupling through enhanced redox performance and enrichment of electroactive taxa (e.g., Actinobacteriota, Firmicutes). In contrast, E3 induced cellular stress, impairing algal and bacterial growth, though denitrifying activity remained intact. Metagenomic analysis linked E3’s reduced efficiency to disrupted nitrosation genes and suppressed photosynthesis (PSI and PSII), alongside Ancylothrix_8PC overproliferation diminishing functional diversity. Conversely, E2 fostered an electroactive microbial network via quorum sensing upregulation, with electroactive bacteria (e.g., Thauera) enhancing interspecies electron transfer. These findings elucidate voltage-driven metabolic mechanisms for optimizing aniline wastewater treatment.

In mainstream wastewater treatment, the potential coupling between ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing bacteria (AnAOB) through the oxygen-limited autotrophic nitrification-denitrification (OLAND) process remains underexplored under variable ammonia-nitrogen loads. This study comparatively investigated two AOA-enriched biological aerated filters (BAFs, counter-current vs co-current) operated with low intermittent aeration and fluctuating ammonia loads (0.04-0.08 kgN/(m2·d)). Experimental results revealed that the counter-current configuration achieved superior nitrogen removal performance, demonstrating 84.49 ± 0.87 % ammonia and 50.0 ± 1.65 % total nitrogen removal efficiencies. Integrated biofilm biochemistry, oxidative stress, functional gene, and microbial community analyses revealed the mechanistic basis for AOA-AnAOB synergy. Counter-current BAFs promoted quorum sensing-mediated extracellular polymeric substances production (122.75 mg/gVSS), reducing reactive oxygen species accumulation by 16.9 % versus co-current systems while enhancing functional microbe activity. This microenvironment selectively enriched copiotrophic Nitrosocosmicus (99.53 %) and Candidatus Brocadia (14.96 %), establishing stable synergy through upregulated nirK, hzs, and hdh gene expression. System resilience stemmed from enhanced antioxidant capacity and interspecies metabolic coordination, providing critical insights for OLAND process optimization and demonstrating feasible Nitrosocosmicus-driven AnAOB enrichment under operational conditions.

Ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) are crucial for nitrogen removal in biological aerated biofilters (BAFs), but drivers of copiotrophic-AOA enrichment within these systems remain unclear. This study investigated two mainstream BAFs with counter-current and co-current flow patterns under varying air-water ratios to optimize AOA enrichment. The counter-current BAF, operating at a gas-water ratio of 0.85:1, achieved high ammonia-nitrogen removal efficiency (96.49% +/- 0.47%) and oxidation rate (11.12 mg N/(L center dot h)). Integrating computational fluid dynamics, biofilm biochemical analysis, microbial identification, and functional gene prediction revealed the enrichment mechanism. Counter-current flow generated lower air-water velocities, stimulating extracellular polymeric substance production and robust biofilm formation with increased biomass. This enhanced biofilm structure favored copiotrophic-AOA proliferation, identifying Nitrososphaera (63.10%) and Nitrosocosmicus (36.73%) as dominant populations. These findings provide a mechanistic basis for designing and operating BAFs to selectively enrich copiotrophic-AOA in-situ, advancing energy-efficient and green wastewater treatment technologies.

Addressing the impacts of diverse carbon sources on microalgal-bacterial granular sludge (MBGS) systems is crucial for advancing this promising carbon-neutral wastewater treatment technology. This study investigates the effects of methanol, glycerol, acetate, and glucose as carbon sources on the removal efficiencies of chemical oxygen demand (COD), NH4+ -N, and PO4 3--P in MBGS systems. The findings demonstrate that carbon source type significantly influences microbial community structure and metabolic function. Acetate achieved maximum removal efficiencies of 88.5 % for COD and 75.5 % for NH4+-N by fostering an alkaline environment and promoting elevated dissolved oxygen levels, thereby enhancing key microbial processes. Glycerol enabled 94.8 % PO43--P removal by enriching Actinobacteria, which drove propionate production to support phosphorusaccumulating organisms via critical enzymes such as glycerol dehydrogenase. In contrast, methanol led to chlorophyll degradation, dominated by methylotrophic bacteria and the accumulation of acidic byproducts, which limited its treatment efficiency. This study provides critical mechanistic insights for optimizing carbon source selection to enhance pollutant removal in MBGS applications.

The ubiquitous presence of phenolic compounds in effluents poses a risk to aquatic organisms and human health. This study investigates the responses of the emerging algal-bacterial granular sludge process in treating phenolic wastewater. The results showed that phenol at 1, 10, and 100 mg/L had little effect on ammonia-N, chemical oxygen demand (COD), and phosphate-P removal. At the highest phenol concentration of 100 mg/L, the average removal rates of ammonia-N, COD, and phosphate-P were 94.8%, 72.9%, and 83.7%, respectively. The presence of phenol led to a decline in chlorophyll content of the algal-bacterial granular sludge, concurrently resulting in an increase in the abundance of microbial diversity. Algal-bacterial granular sludge exhibited mechanisms such as elevated extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) production, which may aid in coping with oxidative stress from phenols. This research underscores the algal-bacterial granular sludge’s potential for treating phenolic wastewater, thereby advancing knowledge in the field of phenol degradation with this innovative technology.

Cities in plain areas have small slopes at the bottoms of rivers, with weak hydrodynamics, heavy pollution and poor self-purification capacities for the restoration of biological habitats. Hydrodynamic and water quality improvements are effective means for the ecological restoration of plain urban rivers. The potential for fish habitat resilience in a typical urban river network plain (more than 130 river sections) in the Dianbei part of China was studied. The tolerant fish, Carassius auratus (C. auratus), and the sensitive fishes Trachidermus fasciatus (T. fasciatus) and Anguilla japonica (A. japonica), were selected as the protection targets, and hydrodynamic factors, river morphology and water quality factors were chosen as environmental indicators. With the fish habitat suitability index, a fish habitat resilience potential evaluation model was established. The response of the habitat resilience potential index (HRPI) to hydrodynamic regulation was subsequently analyzed, and the HRPI indicated an increased habitat resilience potential with its value increasing from 0 to 1. Overall, the resilience potential of tolerant fish species was greater than that of sensitive species in the Dianbei. For the HRPI of C. auratus adults (tolerant species), approximately 62.8% of the river sections were above 0.6 (high resilience level) and were concentrated in the northwest area of the river network. While for the resilience potential of A. japonica adults and T. fasciatus adults (sensitive species), only 60% of the river sections exhibited moderate resilience level (HRPI > 0.5). The average dimensionless habitat resilience potential index (AHRPI) was enhanced by water diversion with its values increased by 10.3%, 9.3% and 12.7% for C. auratus adults, T. fasciatus adults and A. japonica adults, respectively. The habitat resilience potential of C. auratus changed little during the spawning period, which indicated that the effect of hydrodynamic regulation was limited. This study provides a scientific basis for managers to restore urban river network habitats in plain areas.

To address evolving technological demands in wastewater treatment including meeting dual-carbon goals and removing emerging contaminants, the development of innovative technologies is imperative. This study proposes a novel hybrid system integrating microalgal-bacterial granular sludge (MBGS) with membrane filtration for domestic wastewater treatment and efficient antibiotic removal. The optimized MBGS configuration demonstrated high removal efficiencies for pollutants: 94.1 % for COD, 83.2 % for TN, 99.3 % for NH4+-N, and 97.7 % for TP, which had well met the sewage treatment standards. Furthermore, the MBGS-UF system achieved a 1.6-fold reduction in membrane fouling compared to a conventional activated sludge (CAS) system treating domestic wastewater. Subsequently, sulfadiazine (SDZ) was used as a model antibiotic to examine this new hybrid system and results showed that it can efficiently remove the SDZ with 45 % and 56 % SDZ elimination at 1 mg/L and 10 mg/L levels of SDZ. This work establishes MBGS technology as a promising mainstream solution for sustainable wastewater remediation, particularly suitable for integrating with membrane unit for mitigating fouling problem and the emerging micropollutants.

Constructing an efficient catalytic system with predictable oxidation mechanism is vital for the application of persulfate-based oxidation technology. In this work, barium titanate loaded on cuprous oxide (BTO@Cu2O) with controlled morphology were prepared via simple solution route. Cubic Cu2O exhibited highest efficiency for activating peroxymonosulfate (PMS) and degrading bisphenol A (BPA) (kobs = 0.042 min(-1)) after the incorporation of BaTiO3. Both experimental and computational results demonstrate that the formation of heterojunction regulated the electronic structure of adjacent copper atoms, facilitating electron transfer in catalytic oxidation process. Systematical scavenging tests and spin-trapping method screened the production of trace level hydroxyl and super oxide radicals (center dot OH and O-2(center dot-) ) and singlet oxygen (O-1(2)), which are not the primary contributor for BPA degradation. Electrochemical analysis revealed that the electrons were transferred from BPA to BTO6@Cu2O-PMS* intermediates with enhanced oxidation capacity, leading to an efficient nonradical oxidation process. The degradation products were identified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) results, the toxicity of degradation intermediates was evaluated via the quantitative structure-activity relationship analysis. Therefore, this work develops a heterostructure BTO@Cu2O with enhanced catalytic performance for PMS activation in the degradation of organic pollutants, facilitating new insights into the nonradical oxidation mechanism.

Prior research indicated that aluminum ions (Al3+) could disrupt iron homeostasis in cells in synchronous biological nutrient removal and aluminum-based chemical phosphorus removal (CPR). However, the underlying microbial community assembly mechanisms in response to chronic polyaluminum chloride (PAC) disturbance remained unclear. Herein, post-precipitation experiments were conducted with PAC at varying concentrations (0, 40, 80 mg/L) in continuous flow anaerobic-anoxic-oxic systems over a 240-day period. Phosphorus was mainly removed through chemical processes, with minimal changes in polyphosphate accumulating organisms (PAOs) abundance and metabolic genes for polyphosphate and poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate. Chemical phosphorus precipitates accounted for 74.7 similar to 79.3 % in the activated sludge, with aluminum- and iron-phosphorus compounds (AlPs and FePs) being the primary components. Under low-level PAC, the average total inorganic nitrogen (TIN) removal efficiency shifted from short-term enhancement (approximate to 73 %) to long-term inhibition (<60 %), with the inhibition being more pronounced than the acute disturbance caused by high-level PAC (approximate to 63.5 %). Nitrification was most vulnerable to damage compared to denitrification under PAC stress. Although Al3+ initially replaced cellular iron, the iron-induced autotrophic denitrifying bacteria (Azospira) or iron-reducing bacteria (Trichococcus) became dominant, thereby compensating for damage to the tricarboxylic acid cycle and electron transfer. Upon the accumulation of Al3+ reaching 100 mg/g, the ecosystem achieved a new state of stability. Acute PAC disturbance enhanced community cooperation and facilitated rapid network reconfiguration, whereas chronic disturbance resulted in the loss of species and a reduction in network complexity. PAC altered the dynamics of nitrogen conversion by modifying electron flow, with lower concentrations augmenting denitrification and higher concentrations detrimental to nitrification. The biosystem adapted to low PAC levels by rerouting electrons around complex IV, which enhanced electron flow efficiency; however, this adaptation did not preserve in chronic disturbance. This study elucidates microbial assembly mechanisms under varying PAC disturbances, providing insights into the ecological resilience and functional stability of wastewater treatment systems.

Pentavalent vanadium (V(V)) contamination was a common heavy metal contaminant. Among four biomaterials (settleable algae (SA), symbiosis of algae and bacteria (SAB), algal-bacterial granular sludge (ABGS), and activated sludge (AS)), SA demonstrated the best V(V) removal potential and was selected for further investigation. Environmental factors like pH and inorganic carbon (IC) addition, were accessed. SA achieved the optimal V(V) removal capacity (1.39 mg-V(V)/g-SS) with 400 mg/L IC addition. At pH 5 and 10 mg/L V(V), the highest total V removal (1.61 mg-total V/g-SS) was observed. Over 12 d, SA reached maximum V(V) and total V removal of 3.22 mg-V(V)/g-SS and 3.37 mg-total V/g-SS, respectively. High-throughput results identified key functional bacteria (e.g., unclassified_g__Calothrix_PCC-6303 and unclassified_f__Rhodobacteraceae) and a dominant functional algal species (Calothrix_sp._PCC_7716) might have contributed to the V(V) removal. V(V) likely entered the cells through the phosphate transport system, inducing the production of reactive oxygen species. The response mechanisms of SA included electrostatic interactions, bonding to functional groups, precipitation, bioaccumulation, and antioxidant defense. This study highlight SA as an effective biomaterial for V(V) removal and explores V(V) toxicity and algal stress responses.

Enhancing the aquatic environments, promoting the reuse of coal mine water and restoring ecological balance in mining areas are critical for sustainable development. This review proposes the innovative concept of utilizing mine subsidence areas to establish Near-natural systems (NNS) for coal mine drainage post-advanced treatment. These green, low-carbon, economically viable, and scalable systems can provide secondary purification for coal mine drainage discharged into aquatic environments. They will reduce ecological threats, facilitate ecological water replenishment, and promote carbon sequestration by providing integrated ecological services, thereby fostering sustainable development and economic benefits in mining areas. Despite the potential benefits, relative research and comprehensive understanding of this concept remain limited. This paper reviews the application of NNS, including constructed wetlands (CWs), bioretention systems (BRS), and constructed rapid infiltration systems (CRIS) in wastewater treatment, and elaborated the removal mechanism of pollutants. Based on a comprehensive understanding of NNS, this review offers insights and considerations for future research directions in the post- advanced treatment of coal mine drainage. In future, the fundamental research of NNS in mine areas, encompassing design for specific contaminant of coal mine, re-utilization of coal mine waste resources and ecological services, are essential for promoting green mining and ensuring sustainable environmental practices.

Ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) are promising candidates for replacing ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in wastewater treatment. However, limited efforts have been made to enrich copiotrophic-AOA in situ competitively. To this end, two laboratory-scale intermittent aerated biofilters (upflow-aerated biofilter (R1) and downflow-aerated biofilter (R2)) were comparatively employed for the treatment of mainstream wastewater. An extended non-aerobic cycling strategy led to higher residual ammonia-nitrogen levels (0.01-18.7 mg/L), denser biofilms, and facilitated the dominance of Nitrosocosmicus-like AOA (R1: 70.31 %; R2: 82.32 %). Additionally, the AOA in both biofilters were the main contributors (62 %-66 %) to the highly efficient nitrification process. Compared with R1, R2 had a higher abundance of Nitrosomonas and Nitrospira, a lower ammonia oxidation rate, and a simpler co-occurrence network of nitrifiers. The protein content induced by intermittent aeration significantly affected the AOA community. Candidatus Brocadia (3.62 %-7.82 %) was also auto-enriched in both biofilters. Therefore, in situ enrichment of Nitrosocosmicus-dominant nitrifying microorganisms is conducive to developing an environment-friendly, energy-efficient, high ammonia-nitrogen removal AOA-based partial nitrification-anammox process.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) pose significant risks to human health and ecosystems. Constructed wetlands (CWs), as a nature-based solution, are a promising and cost-effective approach for PFAS remediation. However, most studies have focused on plant uptake and substrate adsorption, neglecting the role of biofilms on CW substrates in PFAS removal. This study examines the differences in biofilms on functional (Sewage Sludge Biochar, SSB) and conventional (gravel) materials and their impact on the removal of perfluorobutane sulfonic acid (PFBS), a typical PFAS substitute. Experimental results show that the biofilm adsorption is the dominant way for PFBS removal in SSB-CW, as the SSB-biofilm adsorption capacity (809.0 +/- 9.799 mu g/g) significantly higher than that of SSB itself and the gravel-biofilm (P < 0.05). The high conductivity of SSB, attributed to its graphitic nitrogen content, facilitates the enrichment of electroactive microorganisms and regulates synergistic interactions between electroactive and non-electroactive microbial communities. This, in turn, modifies the biofilm structure and physicochemical properties, leading to increased zeta potential, enhanced hydrophobicity, and altered extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) composition. Consequently, these effects contribute to an improvement in PFBS removal efficiency, reaching 51.162 % +/- 0.08. Undoubtedly, biofilms in CWs offer a promising approach for PFAS removal, where their adsorption capacity for PFBS can be regulated through material properties. This regulation reduces PFBS uptake by plants, thereby lowering environmental risks. Given the widespread occurrence of emerging contaminants in aquatic and terrestrial environments, this strategy provides valuable insights for PFAS remediation in surface water, groundwater, and soil systems.

To address the issues of slow redox cycling and metal ion leaching that hinder the application potential of catalysts, this study synthesized encapsulated tungsten-doped cobalt-copper chitosan-derived biochar microbeads (denoted as CoCuW@CB). The catalyst showed remarkable effectiveness in activating peroxymonosulfate (PMS) to degrade sulfasalazine (SSZ), the degradation efficiency of SSZ (10 mg/L) was 98.2 % within 15 min. The degradation of SSZ was primarily driven by the combined attack of free radicals and non-radical species. As an electron structure modulator, tungsten selectively optimized the activity of Co sites, the catalytic mechanism which tungsten enhanced adsorption/electron transfer -*Co dominated PMS activation-*Cu facilitated valence cycling was revealed. The chitosan encapsulation endows the micro-nanoreactor with dual functions: stabilizing metal sites and suppressing ion leaching. After 7 consecutive cycles, the degradation efficiency of SSZ remained above 90 %. Toxicity prediction showed that the toxicity of most intermediates was negligible, and the system had little toxic effect on mung beans. Comprehensive evaluations of efficiency, stability, and environmental friendliness confirmed that the CoCuW@CB/PMS system is an environmentally sustainable treatment technology.

This study explores the response of sewage antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) under different recirculation time (RT, in hour) of a novel newly developed recirculating stacked hybrid constructed wetland (RSHCW), examines the impact of RT on microbial communities, and reveals the driven factors to influence the changes in ARGs. The results showed that RSHCW achieved >90 % antibiotics removal of university campus sewage, while the RT conditions (RT0.5, RT1 and RT2) did not significantly affect the antibiotic removal. However, shorter RT (0.5 h) could enhance the removal speed of ARGs. The RT significantly influenced the abundance of ARGs in biofilms, primarily in the horizontal flow CW due to the variations in dissolved oxygen (DO). RT2 had higher microbial biomass, diversity, and community's structure stability than RT1 and RT0.5. Correlation network analysis revealed that biomarker at lower RT was more involved in ARG degradation. Additionally, Mantel tests and linear regression analysis further indicated that electrical conductivity (EC), DO and 16S rRNA were the main driven factors for ARGs changes. This study provides a theoretical basis for future technical measures by adjusting operational and environmental parameters to ensure the optimal microbial community in RSHCW, thereby enhancing the removal efficiency of antibiotic and ARGs.