Clarifying carbon storage (CS) patterns in space and over time, together with the factors influencing these patterns, is important for achieving carbon neutrality in arid regions. Many basin-scale assessments overlook spatially differentiated dynamics within heterogeneous landscapes. To address this issue, the Weigan River Basin (WRB) was categorized into spatial clusters, and the InVEST model was integrated with GeoDetector to evaluate driver effects over 1990–2020. In the same interval, cultivated land expanded by 2,244.85 km2 and unused land increased by 3,090.07 km2, largely through conversion from grassland, which declined by 4,368.42 km2. Total CS decreased by 2.34×107 t. Higher values occurred in northern and southern areas, whereas the central area showed lower values, and Global Moran’s I confirmed spatial dependence with statistical significance. In low-CS clusters, nighttime light (NL) and population density (PD) exerted stronger influences, whereas climatic factors played a leading role in high-CS clusters. Interaction analysis further demonstrated that interactions among socioeconomic, climate, and topography provided greater explanatory strength than individual variables, highlighting differentiated controls across heterogeneous zones.

Rational water resources allocation is crucial for achieving the synergistic development of the water-ecology-economy (WEE) nexus in arid basins. Quantitative assessment of individual water users’ benefits under different water shortage rates provides a robust basis for allocation strategies. This study clarifies the pairwise coupling relationships between the water system and other subsystems using a growth curve function. These relationships are integrated as efficiency functions into a multi-objective water resources allocation model that simultaneously optimizes economic benefits, ecological benefits, carbon sequestration, and spatial equilibrium. The water supply volumes allocated to four vegetation types are designated as decision variables. Four scenarios are evaluated: ecological priority, economic priority, balanced optimization, and comprehensive benefit maximization. Allocation performance is assessed using the coupling coordination degree (CCD) method. This research takes the Tarim River Basin, a typical arid basin, as a case study. Key findings reveal that "S"-shaped and "J"-shaped nonlinear relationships exist between crop growth decay rates and water shortage rates. To avert significant losses, it is advisable to maintain water shortage rates below the first inflection point. Notably, most sub-basins perform optimally under the comprehensive benefit maximization scenario, exhibiting the highest CCD in the WEE nexus. These findings provide scientific guidance for both efficient water resource utilization and sustainable development of the WEE nexus in arid basins.

The water yield (WY) service is a critical ecosystem service in arid regions, and understanding its spatiotemporal heterogeneity and controls is important for sustainable watershed management. Annual water yield (WY) in the Aksu River Basin (ARB), China, from 2000 to 2020 was simulated using the InVEST model, with validation against observed runoff (NSE = 0.840, R2 = 0.846, RMSE = 1.787). The results revealed a decline in WY from 66.49 mm in 2000 to 43.15 mm in 2015, while retaining a clear north-south gradient, with higher values in the north. Areas showing decreasing and increasing trends accounted for 45.34% and 3.14% of the basin, respectively. WY exhibited strong spatial autocorrelation (global Moran's I = 0.912-0.941), with high-value clusters in the north and low-value clusters in the south. GeoDetector identified precipitation, temperature, and potential evapotranspiration as key drivers (q = 0.889, 0.880, and 0.832, respectively), with precipitation-related interactions generally exceeding 0.9, indicating enhanced explanatory power through multi-factor coupling. After variable screening and collinearity control, MGWR revealed spatially varying effects of drivers and significant spatial non-stationarity. Overall, despite the declining trend, WY in the ARB maintained a relatively stable spatial structure, with its heterogeneity primarily driven by the coupling of climatic forcing and topographic constraints, providing a scientific basis for zonal water resource management in arid river basins.

Climate change is accelerating terrestrial ecosystem degradation, weakening carbon storage capacity, and destabilizing water resource dynamics. These coupled disturbances threaten the delivery of critical ecosystem services and reveal the limitations of fragmented governance systems characterized by poorly coordinated policies, institutions, and management responsibilities across water, forestry, agriculture, biodiversity conservation, and climate planning sectors. This review synthesizes recent advances in the climate-driven interactions between carbon and water cycles, the role of ecosystem services in mediating resilience, and the potential of adaptive ecological governance to support integrated management. We first examine how climate extremes affect carbon sequestration and hydrological processes, with emphasis on feedback mechanisms in forests, peatlands, and semi-arid landscapes. We then assess how regulating ecosystem services, supported by nature-based solutions, integrated land–water management, and biodiversity conservation, contribute to climate resilience. Through cross-scale case studies from Nepal, China, Brazil, Rotterdam in the Netherlands, and the Mekong River Commission member countries, namely Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam, we evaluate governance strategies that align mitigation and adaptation goals. The review highlights that integrated, multilevel, and inclusive governance can enhance carbon–water synergies, reduce trade-offs, and strengthen socio-ecological resilience through community participation, climate finance, institutional learning, and dynamic monitoring. Key knowledge gaps include the need for interdisciplinary frameworks, robust co-benefit quantification, and adaptive monitoring systems. We conclude that integrated ecological governance, supported by cross-sectoral collaboration and data integration, is essential for maximizing ecosystem service benefits under global change.

Water scarcity and ecological degradation driven by the expansion of irrigated agriculture in arid regions urgently necessitate a rigorous assessment of the combined impacts of climate change and crop-structure adjustments on irrigation water requirements (IWR). Taking the Qarqan River Basin as a case study, this study establishes an integrated framework that incorporates remote sensing (Landsat/MODIS), the AquaCrop-OS crop model, and a CNN-LSTM deep learning architecture to simulate historical IWR (2000-2024) and project future trajectories under CMIP6 climate scenarios. The results indicate that: (1) from 2000 to 2024, fruit tree area expanded from 120.3 to 320.3 km2, cotton stabilized at approximately 165.3 km2 after peaking at 187.9 km2 in 2014, wheat recovered to 113.1 km2, and maize varied between 23.7 and 85.0 km2, indicating that fruit trees have become the dominant crop type. (2) Over the same period, total basin-wide IWR increased by 91% (3.7 x 108 to 7.1 x 108 m3), with fruit trees accounting for 44-68% of this growth. Logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) decomposition further shows that meteorological factors and human activities jointly drove the increase in IWR, with cultivated-area expansion and cropping-structure change contributing most, while improvements in agricultural water-use efficiency partially offset the rise. (3) Projections for 2025-2100 suggest stronger structural dominance of fruit trees and cotton; the growing share of water-intensive cash crops may further elevate irrigation pressure. Under SSP5-8.5, a 30% reduction in fruit tree area in the late century could save 4.3% of irrigation water (0.33 x 108 m3). Overall, this study provides dynamic projections and decision support for adaptive regulation of agricultural water resources in arid regions.

Climate change in High Mountain Asia(HMA)is characterized by elevation dependence,which results in vertical zoning of vegetation distribution.However,few studies have been conducted on the distribution patterns of vegetation,the response of vegetation to climate change,and the key climatic control factors of vegetation along the elevation gradient in this region.In this study,based on the Normalized Difference Vegetation index(NDVI),we investigated the evolution pattern of vegetation in HMA during 2001-2020 using linear trend and Bayesian Estimator of Abrupt change,Seasonality,and Trend(BEAST)methods.Pearson correlation analysis and partial correlation analysis were used to explore the response relationship between vegetation and climatic factors along the elevation gradient.Path analysis was employed to quantitatively reveal the dominant climatic factors affecting vegetation distribution along the elevation gradient.The results showed that NDVI in HMA increased at a rate of 0.011/10a from 2001 to 2020,and the rate of increase abruptly slowed down after 2017.NDVI showed a fluctuating increase at elevation zones 1-2(<2500 m)and then decreased at elevation zones 3-9(2500-6000 m)with the increase of elevation.NDVI was most sensitive to precipitation and temperature at a 1-month lag.With the increase of elevation,the positive response relationship of NDVI with precipitation gradually weakened,while that of NDVI with temperature was the opposite.The total effect coefficient of precipitation(0.95)on vegetation was larger than that of temperature(0.87),indicating that precipitation is the dominant control factor affecting vegetation growth.Spacially,vegetation growth is jointly influenced by precipitation and temperature,but the influence of precipitation on vegetation growth is dominant at each elevation zone.The results of this study contribute to understanding how the elevation gradient effect influences the response of vegetation to climate change in alpine ecosystems.

The escalating conflict between agricultural and ecological water demands, intensified by global climate change, poses significant challenges for water resource allocation in arid inland river basins. This study investigates the potential for integrated management of multiple water sources within the context of the Tarim River, Cherchen River, and Taitema Lake area. For the first time, we developed a joint distribution model of runoff for the Tarim and Cherchen Rivers, informed by the dynamics of Taitema Lake, to assess collaborative allocation strategies for terminal lake management in arid environments. Utilizing measured runoff data from 1960 to 2021, we employed a Bayesian vector autoregression model (BVAR) to analyze hydraulic connections between the rivers and the lake. Multivariate empirical mode decomposition (MEMD) was applied to identify periodic characteristics of runoff, while wavelet coherence transform assessed the consistency of runoff patterns. A Copula function was then utilized to construct a joint distribution model, quantifying variability patterns and their cascading effects on ecological water use in Taitema Lake. Findings reveal that the Cherchen River contributes more significantly to Taitema Lake than the Tarim River, exhibiting stable flows compared to the latter’s fluctuations. Significant lead-lag differences in flows were identified, with primary cycles of 2.9 years for the Tarim River and 5.7 years for the Cherchen River. The Copula model demonstrated a 44.52 % probability of synchronous wet-dry year occurrences, compared to 55.48 % for asynchronous occurrences. The complementarity between the Tarim River and the Cherchen River during wet and dry runoff encounter scenarios provides a foundation for establishing an efficient joint scheduling system and enhancing regional water use efficiency. This study underscores the critical role of strengthening multi-source water coordination and deepening understanding the dynamics of wet-dry runoff transitions to enhance water security and optimize resource management in arid regions.

The sensitivity of snow and glacier melt processes in alpine mountains to climate change, along with the variations in snow and glacier distribution with elevation, can significantly affect runoff and its components. However, the influence of climate and elevation on runoff component changes remains unclear. This study employs the Spatial Processes in Hydrology (SPHY) model, incorporating a multi-stage calibration method for snowmelt, glacier melt, and confluence, using data from MODIS and GRACE satellites. The aim is to quantitatively analyze runoff components in the Tarim River Basin's four source streams and reveal the impacts of climate and elevation changes on runoff and its components. Results indicate that runoff in the four source streams is primarily recharged by snow and glacier meltwater at high elevations and rainfall at lower elevations. The Hotan and Yarkant Rivers are mainly glacier melt runoff, while the Aksu and Kaidu Rivers are mainly rainfall runoff. Runoff increasing for glacier melt-dominated rivers occurs at high elevations (3500-5000 m) and ultrahigh elevations (>5000 m), whereas runoff increases for rainfall-dominated rivers occurs at middle elevations (2000-3500 m). Temperature and precipitation positively impact water resources in the four source streams. Specifically, a 10 % temperature increase during summer results in a 7.2 %, 6.5 %, 4.7 %, and 4.4 % increase in total runoff, while a 10 % precipitation increase causes a 2.7 %, 3.8 %, 5.0 %, and 5.5 % increase in runoff. Precipitation mainly affects the Aksu and Kaidu Rivers' discharge, whereas temperature mainly affects the Hotan and Yarkant Rivers. This study provides a reference for understanding hydrological processes in similar environments, which is crucial for researching alpine mountain hydrology under climate change.

Water resources in arid zones suffer from spatial distribution imbalance, inefficiency, and high consumption. However, the regional and temporal evolution, as well as the spatial differentiation features of agricultural water and soil resource matching in arid zones, remain unclear, and they mostly focus on water quantity while ignoring agricultural pollution (water quality). In this paper, we take the Tarim River Basin (TRB) as the research object, and use crop water footprint, agricultural water and soil resource matching model, and agricultural available water resource abundance index to analyze the spatial and temporal evolution of blue, green, and grey water footprints, as well as the match of agricultural water and soil resources, to reveal the relationship between crop water demand and irrigation water quantity, and to adjust the crop planting layout. The results show that from 2000 to 2020: (1) The TRB water footprint is increasing from southeast to northwest. The blue-green water and grey water footprints of different crops were different. (2) The matching degree of agricultural water and soil resources in TRB decreased year after year, with a geographical pattern of "high in the north and low in the south, high in the west and low in the east, and low in the edge and high in the hinterland". (3) The agricultural available water resources index per unit area decreased overall but increased spatially from west to east and south to north. Therefore, cultivated land expansion in the eastern TRB in land-rich and water-poor areas should be limited, high-water-demand crops (cotton) should be decreased, and cash crops such as maize and winter wheat should be raised. The study is significant in successfully easing the contradiction between supply and demand for soil and water resources in arid zones, hence boosting resource utilization efficiency and assuring the long-term use of agricultural soil and water resources.

Evaluating habitat quality can be useful in determining how economic development and biodiversity conservation relate to one another. The habitat quality module of the InVEST model was used in this study， which was based on land use data from four periods： 1990， 2000， 2010， and 2020. The study area was divided into three units： cold spots， hot spots， and random， using spatial autocorrelation and Getis-Ord Gi* analysis. Geodetectors were used to analyze the effects of elevation， slope， population density， GDP， precipitation， air temperature， and other factors， and geoprobes were used to examine the impacts of terrain， human activity， and meteorological conditions on the habitat quality in the Weihe River Basin. The results showed that the overall trend of habitat quality in the study area was increasing and that most of the areas were in excellent condition during 1990， 2000， 2010， and 2020. Spatially， the habitat quality was higher at the northern and southern edges of the watershed and lower around the city. Habitat quality in the study area was spatially heterogeneous， with population density and GDP being the main drivers of habitat quality in the cold spots， precipitation and elevation serving as the main drivers in the hot spots， and topography， human activities， and meteorology serving this role in the insignificant areas. Moreover， the interaction among two factors increased the impact on the change of regional habitat quality in the different areas in the four years. The results of this study provide an objective basis to support the evolution of regional ecological environment quality.

Understanding the trade-offs, synergies, and drivers of ecosystem services (ESs) is essential for ecological security in arid inland basins. This study focuses on the Aksu River Basin and uses remote sensing, GIS, and the InVEST model to assess four key ESs—soil conservation, carbon storage, habitat quality, and food production—between 2000 and 2020. The results reveal significant land-use changes, including increases in cropland and construction land, and decreases in forest, grassland, and water bodies. Soil conservation, carbon storage, and food production first increased and then declined, while habitat quality showed a continuous decline. There was a growing synergy between soil conservation and carbon storage, but the trade-off between habitat quality and food production became more pronounced. Geographical Detector analysis identified NDVI, precipitation, and temperature as key drivers, with NDVI promoting synergies among multiple ESs. Interactions among factors explained ES relationships more effectively than individual variables. These findings provide a scientific basis for ecological protection and sustainable land-use planning in arid regions.

The High Mountain Asia (HMA) is a prominent global mountain system characterized by an average altitude exceeding 4,000 m, intricate topography, and significant spatial variability in climatic conditions. Despite its importance, there has been a relative paucity of research focusing on the spatiotemporal variations of snow cover, key controlling factors, and variability within HMA sub-basins. This study aims to address this gap by extracting snow cover percentage (SCP) and snow cover days (SCD) data from MOD10A2 snow products, integrating these with precipitation (P) and temperature (T) data from ERA5. Our objective is to analyze the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of snow cover and to use path analysis to elucidate the key climatic factors and spatial differences influencing snow cover changes. The findings indicate that, on a temporal scale, the overall SCP in HMA exhibited a declining trend from 2001 to 2021. Interannual variations in SCP across HMA sub-basins revealed a decreasing trend in the Pamir (PAM), Western Tibetan Plateau (WTS), Eastern Tibetan Plateau (ETS), Western Kunlun (WKL), Qilian Shan (QLS), and Himalaya (HDS) regions, while an increasing trend was observed in other areas. Spatially, 22.97% of the HMA regions experienced an increase in SCD, primarily in the Western Himalaya (WHL), Central Himalaya (CHL), and Southeastern Tibet (SET) regions. Conversely, 28.08% of the HMA regions showed a decrease in SCD, predominantly in the Eastern Himalaya (EHL), HDS, and WTS regions. Temperature (T) emerged as the primary influencing factor of SCD change in most HMA sub-basins. However, in the Eastern Kunlun (EKL) and WHL sub-basins, precipitation (P) was identified as the main driver of SCD change, affecting all elevation zones in these regions. Additionally, other climatic conditions can also impact snow cover beyond the primary controlling factor.

Natural vegetation in arid regions plays a crucial role in combating land desertification and maintaining soil and water balance， and understanding its spatiotemporal dynamics and exploring the influencing factors are essential for ecological restoration and policy formulation. This study focused on the Kashgar River Basin， a watershed located in the arid region of northwest China. Using the Google Earth Engine （GEE） platform and MODIS data， fractional vegetation coverage （FVC） was extracted. The Theil-Sen + Mann-Kendall method， coefficient of variation， Hurst index， and multivariate residual regression analysis were employed to examine the spatiotemporal evolution， stability， and persistence of vegetation coverage in the Kashgar River Basin and to assess the impact of climate change and human activities on FVC changes quantitatively. The results of the study follow： ① From 2000 to 2022， the overall trend of FVC in the Kashgar River Basin showed fluctuating growth， with significant spatial heterogeneity. Vegetation coverage was relatively higher in the plains， while mountainous areas were dominated by lower coverage. ② The overall stability of vegetation coverage was high， with 56.88% of the area showing significant improvement in FVC， and the average Hurst index of FVC was 0.48. Future trends suggest that 35.62% of the region will continue to improve. ③ The combined effects of climate change and human activities were identified as the primary drivers of FVC changes in the plains， and precipitation was the main factor influencing FVC in mountainous areas. Human activities significantly impacted FVC， particularly through land use changes， where the interchange between grassland and cropland led to notable improvements in FVC in some regions. These findings provide scientific evidence for land use planning and vegetation restoration in arid regions.

Arid inland river basins exhibit pronounced uncertainty and spatial heterogeneity in carbon storage dynamics due to extreme climate conditions, water scarcity and ecosystem vulnerability. In particular, water-depleted zones still lack systematic research on the evolution mechanism of carbon storage. To assess the evolution characteristics of carbon storage in such regions, this study developed an integrated framework combining the Patch-generating Land Use Simulation (PLUS) model, the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model and a Structural Equation Model (SEM), taking the Tarim River mainstream as a representative case. It systematically analyzed the spatial and temporal evolution of land use/cover change (LUCC) and carbon storage from 1990 to 2020, simulated future trends under three scenarios: natural development (ND), cultivated land protection (CP) and ecological protection (EP), covering from 2030 to 2050, and quantitatively identified the direct and indirect drivers of spatial differentiation in carbon storage. The results revealed that over the past three decades, the most significant land transitions in the Tarim River mainstream occurred in cultivated and build-up land. Among the three scenarios, within the EP scenario, the reduction in carbon storage by 2030, 2040, and 2050 was significantly alleviated, with an additional 56 x 105 tons of carbon stored compared to the cultivated land protection scenario. LUCC emerged as the dominant directly driver of regional carbon storage changes. Additionally, carbon storage in the upper, middle, and lower reaches was indirectly influenced by socio-economic and natural geographical factors, with the dominant factor varying by region. These differences modified water resource supply patterns, influenced vegetation dynamics, and ultimately indirectly affected the spatial and temporal evolution of carbon storage. This study enriches the understanding of carbon storage evolution mechanisms in arid regions and underscores the importance of regionspecific carbon management strategies tailored to local conditions.

Meteorological drought, characterized by a decrease in precipitation, leads to hydrological drought, characterized by a decrease in runoff through the water cycle. Currently, research on drought propagation primarily considers the entire region as the research object, which cannot effectively reflect the difference in propagation characteristics within the region. Therefore, this study analyzed the propagation time, probability, and threshold of meteorological to hydrological drought based on precipitation and runoff data with 0.25° spatial resolution. The propagation time was primarily determined according to the correlation coefficients of the standard precipitation index and standard streamflow index sequences at different timescales. To calculate the propagation probability and propagation threshold, this study proposes a novel method based on Bayesian conditional probabilities to calculate the propagation characteristics that embody the internal mechanism of propagation effectively by fitting the marginal and joint distributions. Otherwise, based on the 20-year moving average and Mann–Kendall trend test to analyze the dynamic changing trends of propagation probability and propagation threshold during the study period (1961–2015). In addition, the influences on the propagation threshold were analyzed from the perspectives of meteorology (precipitation, temperature, and evaporation) and the underlying surface (elevation, slope, and soil moisture). The analysis of drought propagation characteristics can deepen the understanding of the propagation process, which also provides guidance for the timely formulation of drought control measures in the future.

ABSTRACT This study innovatively utilizes the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud platform, combined with a multispectral index rule set, to address the challenges of extracting open-surface water bodies in the middle reaches of the Tarim River Basin (MROTR). To overcome the limitations of traditional index methods, particularly the reduced extraction accuracy caused by mixed pixels in arid environments, this research integrates indices such as MNDWI, NDVI, and EVI for automated water extraction, significantly enhancing the precision of water body delineation. By analyzing the spatiotemporal changes in open-surface water area (SWA) from 1990 to 2022, a notable increase in SWA was observed following the implementation of ecological gate-controlled water management, while a decreasing trend was identified within an 8-km range from the riverbanks. The results show a 93.7% accuracy in surface water identification and an SWA growth rate of 12.47 km2/year, with 96% of this growth attributed to seasonal water areas. Runoff loss decreased by 8.53% in the S1 and S2 regions but increased by 7.76% in the S3 and S4 regions. The mixed index rule method proved effective for large-scale water detection, offering new insights for managing arid region water resources.

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Land use is one of the important factors causing the change in ecosystem carbon storage. Studying the spatio-temporal evolution characteristics of carbon storage driven by land use change is of great significance for enhancing the carbon sequestration capacity of terrestrial ecosystems, slowing down the effect of climate warming, and helping to achieve the goal of "dual carbon." Taking the Tarim River Basin as the research object, based on four periods of land use data from 1990 to 2020, the InVEST model carbon module was applied to estimate and analyze the temporal and spatial evolution characteristics of carbon storage in the basin, and the impact of land use change on the carbon sequestration capacity of the basin ecosystem and the spatial differentiation driving law of carbon storage were discussed. The results showed as follows： ① Grassland and unused land were the main land use types in the Tarim River Basin, accounting for more than 90% of the total land types, followed by cultivated land, forest land, water area, and construction land. From 1990 to 2020, the area of cultivated land, construction land, and unused land increased, while the area of grassland, forest land, and water area decreased. The total transfer area of land use type in the basin from 1990 to 2020 was 2.19×105 km2, and grassland was the main transfer type （accounting for 44.22% of the total transfer area）, which was mainly converted into unused land and cultivated land. ② The overall spatial distribution of carbon stocks in the Tarim River Basin was lower in the middle and higher in the surrounding areas. The high-to-high-cluster and high-to-low-cluster carbon stocks were mainly located in the distribution areas of woodland and grassland, and the low-value carbon stocks were mainly distributed in the unused land type areas in the middle of the Tarim River Basin. Over the past 30 years, an accumulative loss of 9×107 Mg was observed. The center of gravity of carbon storage change shifted to the southeast, and most of the areas of carbon storage reduction were cultivated land and unused land expanding to the surrounding areas, encroaching on grassland and forest land with higher carbon density. ③ The contribution of different land use types to carbon storage was grassland, forest land, cultivated land, unused land, construction land, and water area. ④ The spatial differentiation of carbon stocks in the Tarim River Basin was influenced by various driving factors such as terrain, climate, environment, and population and their synergies.

Desert riparian forest vegetation maintains the fragile balance of ecosystems in extreme arid areas. Raising the phreatic water table through efficient ecological water supply is the key to the desert riparian forests in extreme arid areas. The main objective of this study is to explore an innovative framework in which the response of phreatic water table depth (PWTD) to ecological water supply flow (EWSF) can be effectively reflected. The framework is based on the computationally efficient integrated surface water - groundwater model (ISGWM), through which surface water processes, groundwater recharge and discharge processes, and PWTD changes under different EWSF can be accurately simulated. A large number of simulations were conducted to reflect the response of PWTD to EWSF, and to explore the suitable EWSF and its intra-annual process considering the efficiency of PWTD reduction. The applicability and advantages of ISGWM were evaluated for the Tarim River Basin (TRB), a typical inland river basin, northwest China. The response of PWTD to EWSF was studied in 55 gate control areas in the mainstream of TRB. The formulas of suitable EWSF of 55 gates with different initial PWTDs were fitted. It is more beneficial to concentrate the ecological water supply in flood season (Jun.-Oct.). Overall, the ISGWM can accurately describe the multi-process of surface water and groundwater interactions. This study can provide scientific support for water resources management and allocation in the TRB and other similar inland river basins.