Research summary In recent years, a growing form of evidence tied to criminal cases has been police body-worn camera (BWC) footage. In many jurisdictions, the majority of cases include BWC evidence, though limited research examines how this evidence impacts prosecutorial decision-making and case outcomes. In this study, we examine this issue using 7 years (2016-2022) of prosecution data (N = 29,923) from a large urban jurisdiction in Maryland. We use covariate balancing propensity score weighting to equate treatment (BWC) and control (non-BWC) cases on baseline characteristics, and assess the impact of BWC evidence on a variety of downstream outcomes. Our results indicate that BWC evidence impacts the likelihood of nolle pros decisions and guilty pleas, reduces case-processing time, and alters incarceration sentences following guilty pleas, though the effects are conditioned by crime type and are strongest for cases initiated by "on-view" arrests.Policy implications The rapid adoption of BWCs has strained the resources of local prosecutor's offices. Empirical knowledge establishing whether, and under what conditions, BWC footage provides useful evidence during prosecution is critical to informing decisions about the costs and benefits of BWC adoption and the development of evidence-based practices for the use of BWC footage during the court process. Our findings show that BWC evidence has significant impacts on case processing outcomes, but these effects depend on the characteristics of the offense in question. Our results help to inform decisions concerning the implementation and scope of BWC programs, as well as strategies outlining the use of BWC footage during prosecution.

Scholars often highlight negative stereotyping and implicit bias as key mechanisms driving racial disparities in punishment, however these psychological processes present challenges for empirical observation and measurement. In our study, we investigate the relationship between race and neuropsychological response to a sample of booking photos of White and Black male defendants. Thirty participants were shown 500 photos of defendants from Minneapolis, MN in a laboratory setting. While viewing the photos, we collected and analyzed electroencephalograms (EEGs), which capture neurological activity. We examined four markers of brain activity known as event related potentials (ERPs), which have been associated in prior work with the processing of facial stimuli, racial bias and/or expectation violation. Our findings are mixed, but we find that images of White male defendants were linked with larger amplitudes on one ERP that has been associated with expectation violation and one ERP that has been associated with more “effortful” and “deep” processing of facial stimuli. Our study provides a preliminary and exploratory step towards incorporating these kinds of neurological data in the study of racial bias in sentencing and other criminal legal system outcomes.

Life sentences without the possibility of parole (LWOP) are an important feature of the modern American penal system, but relatively little research examines the factors that shape the imposition of these sentences. In the federal system, life sentences—all of which are LWOP sentences due to the abolition of federal parole—often result from mandatory minimum sentencing statutes that require life imprisonment. We use USSC data from 2010 to 2017 to investigate the imposition and circumvention of mandatory LWOP sentences in federal court. We consider the role of structural inequalities in defining who is convicted under statutes requiring life sentences and examine who ultimately receives these sentences. We also investigate the unique role that substantial assistance departures play in circumventing mandatory minimum penalties, examine how they potentially contribute to racial inequality in life imprisonment, and assess how these processes differ for drug and non-drug crimes. Our results indicate that almost half of all individuals convicted under statutes requiring LWOP did not receive the mandatory life sentence; moreover, almost all (95%) of those who avoided the mandatory sentence received a substantial assistance departure. We also find that Black, but not Hispanic, offenders are more likely than White offenders to be convicted of an offense carrying a mandatory life sentence, that Black offenders who are eligible for a mandatory life term are more likely than similarly-situated White defendants to actually receive it, and that Black mandatory life offenders are less likely than their White counterparts to benefit from downward departures for providing substantial assistance. We conclude that substantial assistance departures are an important mechanism that prosecutors and judges use to "demandatorize" life sentences and that both mandatory minimums and substantial assistance departures shape patterns of inequality in the federal sentencing process, but we find limited evidence to suggest that these differences are due to the sentencing of federal drug offenses.

Criminal legal systems around the world rely heavily on defendants foregoing their right to trial and pleading guilty. However, legal scholars, social scientists, and practitioners have identified and empirically examined numerous problems with pleas, such as the high potential for coercion, innocent defendants falsely pleading guilty, and undue incentives in exchange for accepting plea offer. In this article, leading guilty plea experts (practitioners and researchers) were asked to identify what they considered to be the most urgent questions surrounding pleas. Across nine commentaries, three primary themes emerged. First were calls for increased transparency in pleas, specific to rules of discovery and access to exculpatory information, and in uncovering the hidden nature of the plea negotiation process. Second were concepts of fairness and voluntariness, such as uncounseled pleas, particularly for misdemeanour defendants, and the dubious assumptions made by courts regarding the presumption of voluntariness. Third was the theme of fair and just outcomes, particularly false guilty pleas. Four of the commentaries focused on innocence, describing and encouraging more research on the factors that increase false guilty pleas, including excessive plea discounts, specialized sentencing offers for juvenile defendants, and ‘time‐served’ offers, either to induce initial guilty pleas (pre‐trial phase) or to avoid official exonerations of those wrongly convicted (post‐conviction phase). Across all commentaries, experts identified areas in need of future research, both in continuing to understand the problems known to plague systems of pleas and in developing improved methods to ensure the guilty plea process is transparent, voluntary, and just.

Extant research on criminal sentencing generally concludes that racial/ethnic disparity is concentrated in the “in–out” decision, and that racial differences in sentence lengths are small and inconsistent. However, sentence length analyses rarely focus on the fact that criminal sentences are often partially or fully suspended, creating situations in which the sentence formally imposed differs from the sentence served. In many jurisdictions, suspended sentencing is used widely and is a highly discretionary decision that carries considerable potential to mask racial inequality in punishment. This study uses 24 years of sentencing guideline data (2000–2023) from the state of Maryland to test for racial/ethnic disparity in the use of suspended sentences. Using a novel modeling approach capable of simultaneously estimating the probability of receiving a fully suspended sentence, a fully executed sentence, and variation in the proportion of the total sentence suspended, we test for racial disparities in the application of suspended sentencing outcomes. We identify significant and meaningful disparities in suspended sentences that are largest for minority defendants convicted at trial. However, we also find that this disparity has been declining over time. Ultimately, we emphasize the importance of distinguishing between active and suspended sentences in ongoing research on punishment inequalities.

Objective: We investigate the role that neighborhood socioeconomic contexts and defendant mobility patterns play in prosecutorial charge reductions. Methods: Using data from a large sample of criminal defendants prosecuted during 2010 to 2011 in New York County (N = 68,113), we analyze differences in charge reductions for defendants who reside and offend in low- and high-income areas, and for those who traverse socioeconomically divergent neighborhoods when committing crime. Results: Net of individual defendant characteristics, like gender and race, we find that defendants from low-income neighborhoods who offend in high-income locales are significantly less likely to benefit from discretionary charge reductions. Conclusions: Defendant mobility patterns play a key role in defining the social context of criminal punishment. This suggests it is essential to consider both where a defendant resides and where their crime is committed when assessing the role of ecological stereotypes and place-based attributions in criminal court actor decision-making.

Occipital nerve decompression is effective in reducing headache symptoms in select patients with migraine and occipital neuralgia. Eligibility for surgery relies on subjective symptoms and responses to nerve blocks and Onabotulinum toxin A (Botox) injections. No validated objective method exists for detecting occipital headache pathologies. The purpose of the study is to explore the potential of high-resolution Magnetic Resolution Imaging (MRI) in identifying greater occipital nerve (GON) pathologies in chronic headache patients. The MRI protocol included three sequences targeting fat-suppressed fluid-sensitive T2-weighted signals. Visualization of the GON involved generating 2-D image slices with sequential rotation to track the nerve course. Twelve patients underwent pre-surgical MRI assessment. MRI identified four main pathologies that were validated against intra-operative examination: GON entanglement by the occipital artery, increased nerve thickness and hyperintensity suggesting inflammation compared to the non-symptomatic contralateral side, early GON branching with rejoining at a distal point, and a connection between the GON and the lesser occipital nerve. MRI possesses the ability to visualize the GON and identify suspected trigger points associated with headache symptoms. This case series highlights MRI's potential to provide objective evidence of nerve pathology. Further research is warranted to establish MRI as a gold standard for diagnosing extracranial contributors in headaches.

Criminological research into plea bargaining has received increased attention in recent years as more data on criminal case processing and prosecution have become available, and more sophisticated methods of investigation have been implemented. Built upon a longstanding and interdisciplinary theoretical tradition, research into plea bargaining has uncovered important research findings that are valuable for researchers and practitioners alike. This chapter provides an overview of the most important findings from the criminological literature on plea bargaining, the methodological advances in this area of study and the theoretical foundation upon which the research has been built. Key topics of discussion include the trial penalty, racial disparities within the plea-bargaining process, the interconnected nature of case processing, cumulative disadvantage, evidentiary issues and data limitations, as well as promising policies for shaping a more equitable form of plea bargaining. We conclude by contextualising the current state of the plea-bargaining literature, as well as discussing potential avenues for future scholarly research into plea bargaining.

ARIA is a common side effect of aducanumab, the first anti-amyloid pharmacotherapy approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat Alzheimer’s disease. Regular MRI is required by FDA to detect and monitor different forms of ARIA during initiation of therapy. MRI protocols must be a) high resolution to detect abnormalities with high sensitivity, b) fast to accommodate workflow and ensure patient compliance and c) standardized to maximize data acquisition consistency across sites. Based on a vendor agnostic protocol recommendation by Benzinger et al (CTAD 2021), we propose specific parameters for 3T Philips systems, for an accelerated and enhanced protocol. The protocol was developed on a 3T Philips Elition X scanner, using 32-channel head coil, and included 3D T1, 3D FLAIR, 2D DWI, 2D T2 * and multi echo 3D Susceptibility Weighted Imaging (SWI) sequences. Acquisition voxel resolution of 3D T1, 3D FLAIR, T2 * and DWI matches current recommendations. 3D SWI resolution is 0.7x0.7x2mm. Compressed-SENSE (C-SENSE) acceleration is applied on 3D T1, 3D FLAIR, T2 * and 3D SWI. SENSE is applied on DWI (Figure 1). Total acquisition time including the additional 3D SWI scan is 11 minutes, 6 minutes faster than the original recommendation. Qualitative assessment of images showed high signal-to-noise and contrast-to-noise. Images were free of acceleration related artifacts. Automated slice prescription localizer ensures better reproducibility for longitudinal assessment. Imaging protocol standardization is necessary to ensure consistent accuracy for diagnosing ARIA. Broad recommendations leave room for variability, therefore specific parameters are needed to achieve cross-platform standardization. Our protocol is applicable for 3T Philips systems with compressed-SENSE capability and 32-channel head coil. The recommended C-SENSE values maintain image quality with shorter exam time. This is more comfortable for patients and easier to fit into the workflow. The higher sensitivity of SWI can improve thresholds for therapy monitoring and provide additional quantitative measurements.

PurposeSpinal cord gray‐matter imaging is valuable for a number of applications, but remains challenging. The purpose of this work was to compare various MRI protocols at 1.5 T, 3 T, and 7 T for visualizing the gray matter.MethodsIn vivo data of the cervical spinal cord were collected from nine different imaging centers. Data processing consisted of automatically segmenting the spinal cord and its gray matter and co‐registering back‐to‐back scans. We computed the SNR using two methods (SNR_single using a single scan and SNR_diff using the difference between back‐to‐back scans) and the white/gray matter contrast‐to‐noise ratio per unit time. Synthetic phantom data were generated to evaluate the metrics performance. Experienced radiologists qualitatively scored the images. We ran the same processing on an open‐access multicenter data set of the spinal cord MRI (N = 267 participants).ResultsQualitative assessments indicated comparable image quality for 3T and 7T scans. Spatial resolution was higher at higher field strength, and image quality at 1.5 T was found to be moderate to low. The proposed quantitative metrics were found to be robust to underlying changes to the SNR and contrast; however, the SNR_single method lacked accuracy when there were excessive partial‐volume effects.ConclusionWe propose quality assessment criteria and metrics for gray‐matter visualization and apply them to different protocols. The proposed criteria and metrics, the analyzed protocols, and our open‐source code can serve as a benchmark for future optimization of spinal cord gray‐matter imaging protocols.

A well-established body of research focuses on the relationship between criminal threat and the exercise of formal social control, and a largely separate literature examines the effects of victim race in criminal punishment. Despite their close association, few attempts have been made to integrate these related lines of empirical inquiry in the sociology of punishment. In this article, we address this issue by examining relationships among criminal threat, victim race, and punitive sentiment toward black and Latino defendants. We analyze nationally representative survey data that include both subjective and objective measures of criminal threat, and we incorporate unique information on victim/offender dyads to test research questions about the that role victim race plays in the formation of anti-black and anti-Latino sentiment in the criminal justice system. The results indicate that both subjective perceptions of criminal threat and minority population growth are significantly related to punitiveness among whites, and that punitive sentiment is enhanced in situations that involve minority offenders and white victims. Moreover, we show that aggregate indicators of racial threat strongly condition the effect of victim race on punitive attitudes. Implications of these findings are discussed in relation to racial group threat theories and current perspectives on the exercise of state-sponsored social control.

Alongside capital punishment, sentences to life without the possibility of parole are one of the most distinctive aspects of the American system of criminal punishment. Unlike the death penalty, though, almost no empirical work has examined the decision to impose life imprisonment. The current study analyzes several years of recent federal sentencing data (FY2010–FY2017) to investigate underlying sources of racial disparity in life without parole sentences. The analysis reveals disparities in who receives life imprisonment, but it finds these differences are attributable mostly to indirect mechanisms built into the federal sentencing system, such as the mode of conviction, mandatory minimums, and guidelines departures. Both Black and Hispanic offenders are more likely to be eligible for life sentences under the federal guidelines, but conditional on being eligible, they are not more likely to receive life sentences. Findings are discussed in relation to ongoing debates over racial inequality and the growing role that life imprisonment plays in American exceptionalism in punishment.

This article reviews the empirical research literature on plea bargaining in the United States. It starts with an historical overview of the evolution of plea bargaining in the criminal justice system. It describes how the rise in plea bargaining has been coupled with an expansion of prosecutorial power. In particular, it elaborates on the role of modern sentencing reforms in enhancing prosecutorial discretion in plea negotiations. Next, it examines normative perspectives and philosophical arguments regarding the utility of plea bargaining. This includes discussion of how plea bargaining may circumvent the goals of criminal punishment. Lastly, it reviews the empirical state of the research literature on plea bargaining and offers future directions for expanding this work. It concludes with policy recommendations aimed at addressing continuing issues and concerns in the guilty plea process.

We have previously characterized the reproducibility of brain tumor relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV) using a dynamic susceptibility contrast magnetic resonance imaging digital reference object across 12 sites using a range of imaging protocols and software platforms. As expected, reproducibility was highest when imaging protocols and software were consistent, but decreased when they were variable. Our goal in this study was to determine the impact of rCBV reproducibility for tumor grade and treatment response classification. We found that varying imaging protocols and software platforms produced a range of optimal thresholds for both tumor grading and treatment response, but the performance of these thresholds was similar. These findings further underscore the importance of standardizing acquisition and analysis protocols across sites and software benchmarking.

We evaluated an alternative diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) acquisition for prostate magnetic resonance imaging of men with pelvic hardware, using radial k -space sampling (MultiVane [MV]), short-tau inversion-recovery (STIR) fat suppression, and split acquisition of turbo spin-echo signals. The optimized STIR-MV-DWI reduced metal-associated artifacts and image distortion, and aided in visualization of the prostate and lesions. The STIR-MV-DWI can be a valuable adjunct in prostate magnetic resonance imaging of men with pelvic hardware, among whom the conventional echo-planar DWI is compromised.

OBJECTIVE:Computerized tomography (CT) is the modality of choice for imaging bone; however, it utilizes ionizing radiation and suffers from poor soft-tissue contrast. Unlike CT, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides excellent soft-tissue contrast but is limited in its ability to image bone. The objective of this study is to describe a new technical innovation which provides superior cortical and trabecular bone contrast on MRI.METHODS:FRACTURE (fast field echo resembling a CT using restricted echo-spacing), a 3D gradient echo pulse sequence with restricted echo-spacing combined with an automated post-processing, is described.RESULTS:Cases demonstrating the application and utility of this technique in diagnostic MRI performed for traumatic, inflammatory, neoplastic, and developmental conditions in pediatric patients are presented.CONCLUSION:The cortical and trabecular bone contrast generated by FRACTURE yields clinically relevant information for diagnosis and management of a subset of patients in whom it may potentially obviate the need for a preoperative CT scan.