Finished milk powders are tested for a suite of microbial, chemical and physical attributes that allow the product to pass customer and legislative requirements. However, sampling strategies in the dairy industry oftentimes overlook the benefits of applying corrective and preventative actions (CAPA’s) to uncover product quality issues influenced by the process. Year on year, product downgrading is a huge economic loss to dairy manufacturers, and while thermophile contamination does not represent a food safety issue, it highlights poor hygienic processing. This study quantitatively analysed the level of thermophiles in both finished whey and skim milk powders for four production years (2018 - 2021). Results showed thermophilic contamination was highly variable between powders. Skim milk powder (SMP) displayed an out of specification (OOS) test level of over 2% per tonne of powder produced compared with a much lower contamination rate of just 0.85% in the whey category. The aims of this research were to trend thermophile results for one large dairy manufacturing plant and provide recommendations for both product and process optimisations. This research provided the company with opportunities to improve processing techniques improve hygiene and improve in-process sampling strategies. The outcomes of this research encourages other dairy manufacturing plants to implement robust sampling strategies during peak season to aid the understanding of thermophilic contamination across processing lines before it reaches finished product.

Dairy quality strategies start at the beginning of a raw milk supply chain at farm level, but it is the obligation of the manufacturer at a dairy processing plant to ensure quality is upheld from intake to finished product. This is achieved by implementing robust quality systems, measured through sampling plans and analytical test methods. Influences on product quality and composition, and analytical test results within a dairy plant are multi-factorial including: seasonality; the quality of incoming milk and herd health; the level of skilled laboratory technicians; the level of production and the availability of equipment; and finally milk harvesting, transportation and handling. These factors, along with customer and regulatory requirements will determine the level and type of analytical testing required. In the dairy industry, manufacturers oftentimes pay little attention to the need for optimising analytical test strategies or improving laboratory operations, if it is not broken why fix it? The focus of this qualitative research was to differentiate the core current analytical test methods in use at three dairy manufacturing plants for the production of raw milk, skim milk and cream and skim milk powder (SMP). The main objective being to inform and educate each producer on best practice methods. Results displayed similarities across testing categories but demonstrated a range of traditional testing methods in the microbiological analysis compared to advanced instrumentation use in the chemical and compositional analytical category. The dairy industry needs to adapt to a modern, process focused quality system using industry 4.0 analytical processing regimes.

The short raw milk lifespan is a matter of concern for the dairy processing sector. It is crucial to the final product quality to ensure that raw milk will reach the cooling facility without undue delay while maintaining high hygienic standards. However, an effective milk reception is undermined by numerous internal and external challenges due to the complexity of the dairy manufacturing system and the stochastic variation of the milk supply chain. This work presents an industrial case study where the milk reception performance was examined, and opportunities for improvement were identified. The output provided operational documentation of each stage of milk reception. The outcomes illustrate that existing infrastructure and operations were not set up to manage a post-quota abolition uptake in milk production. A number of shortcomings and challenges were outlined, namely process bottlenecks, inefficient design of the facility layout, lack of standardized procedures, and internal-communication issues. Recommendations for improvements have been provided to achieve a 23.4% reduction of process lead time. These findings provide an opportunity for the industry to review their milk reception operations to deal with stochastic variations in milk supply and seasonality.

This research communication describes the lactating intramammary (IMM) antibiotic formulation most used by Irish dairy farmers at farm level through interviewing 202 dairy farmers. The IMM antibiotic usage data is not easily available to the researcher and farming community. This study determined that three commercial formulations (Synulox ™, Tetra Delta™ and Terrexine) made up 81% of the products used at farm level. The formulation Synulox™ was the most used at 34% first preference and 32% second preference and contains amoxicillin/clavulanic, a standard broad spectrum antibiotic, for which mastitis pathogen resistance remains low. The aminoglycosides were used in four of the IMM formulations analysed, including Tetra Delta™ and Terrexine. Of the 12 antibiotics identified in the IMM formulations studied, three including cefalexin, benzylpenicillin and penethamate are classified as highly important antibiotics (HIA) by the World Health Organisation (WHO) whilst the other 8 (dihydrostreptomycin, streptomycin, neomycin, framycetin, kanamycin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, and cefquinome), are considered critically important (CIA) for use in human health. This study has generated knowledge of the preferences of lactating IMM formulations used at farm level.

Private groundwater sources in the Republic of Ireland provide drinking water to an estimated 750,000 people or 16% of the national population. Consumers of untreated groundwater are at increased risk of infection from pathogenic microorganisms. However, given the volume of private wells in operation, remediation or even quantification of public risk is both costly and time consuming. In this study, a hierarchical logistic regression model was developed to 'predict' contamination with E. coli based on the results of groundwater quality analyses of private wells (n = 132) during the period of September 2011 to November 2012. Assessment of potential microbial contamination risk factors were categorised into three groups: Intrinsic (environmental factors), Specific (local features) and Infrastructural (groundwater source characteristics) which included a total of 15 variables. Overall, 51.4% of wells tested positive for E. coli during the study period with univariate analysis indicating that 11 of the 15 assessed risk factors, including local bedrock type, local subsoil type, septic tank reliance, 5 day antecedent precipitation and temperature, along with well type and depth, were all significantly associated with E. coli presence (p < 0.05). Hierarchical logistic regression was used to develop a private well susceptibility model with the final model containing 8 of the 11 associated variables. The model was shown to be highly efficient; correctly classifying the presence of E. coli in 94.2% of cases, and the absence of E. coli in 84.7% of cases. Model validation was performed using an external data set (n = 32) and it was shown that the model has promising accuracy with 90% of positive E. coli cases correctly predicted. The developed model represents a risk assessment and management tool that may be used to develop effective water-quality management strategies to minimize public health risks both in Ireland and abroad.

Sampling and analysis occur along the milk processing train: from collection at farm level, to intake at the diary plant, the processing steps, and the end products. Milk has a short shelf life; however, products such as milk powders have allowed a global industry to be developed. Quality control tests are vital to support activities for hygiene and food standards to meet regulatory and customer demands. Multiples of chemical and microbiological contamination tests are undertaken. Hazard analysis testing strategies are necessary, but some tests may be redundant; it is therefore vital to identify product optimization quality control strategies. The time taken to undergo testing and turnaround time are rarely measured. The dairy industry is a traditional industry with a low margin commodity. Industry 4.0 vision for dairy manufacturing is to introduce the aspects of operational excellence and implementation of information and communications technologies. The dairy industries’ reply to Industry 4.0 is represented predominantly by proactive maintenance and optimization of production and logistical chains, such as robotic milking machines and processing and packaging line automation reinforced by sensors for rapid chemical and microbial analysis with improved and real-time data management. This chapter reviews the processing trains with suggestions for improved optimization.

The production of skim milk powder (SMP) has increased among Irish Dairy processors in recent years. SMP has nutritional benefits and functional properties, including high calcium and potassium, a low fat content, excellent gelation, emulsification and foaming properties. As Irish dairy exports are increasing year on year, the requirement to intensify process optimisation is heightened. This study investigated the analytical test levels applicable to the regulatory requirements for the quality and safety assurance in the production of SMP across a 12 month period in two large Irish milk processing plants. The efficacy of the testing strategies and turnaround time for SMP for both plants were examined and compared. The results of this study demonstrate excess testing at 64% and 36% respectively, over the regulatory requirements for both companies. The sediment and density tests demonstrated the highest out of specification excess test results for each plant respectively. This is the first study to our knowledge on optimising sampling regimes in a dairy processing setting and the outcomes of this study propose an overview to the current SMP testing strategies for improvement in process optimisation for any milk product, focusing on the process in order to optimise overall production levels and to address analytical test levels, out of specification results and laboratory turn-around time (TAT).

Microbiological hazards can occur when foodstuffs come into contact with contaminated surfaces or infectious agents dispersed by air currents in the manufacturing environment. An environmental monitoring program (EMP) is a critical aspect of sustainable and safe food manufacturing used to evaluate the effectiveness of the microbial controls in place. An effective EMP should be based on risk analysis, taking into account previous sampling history to determine the selection of the sampling points, the scope of the test, and the frequency of analysis. This study involved evaluation of the environmental monitoring regime and microbiological status of a medium-sized dairy plant manufacturing food ingredients, e.g., proteins, milk powders, and dairy fats. The data specific to microbial tests ( n = 3,468), recorded across 124 fixed sampling locations over a 2-year period (2014 to 2015) from air ( n = 1,787) and surfaces ( n = 1,681) were analyzed. The aim of this study was to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the EMP in a select dairy processing plant. The results of this study outline the selection of sampling locations, the scope of the test, and the frequency of analysis. An analysis of variance revealed subsections of the manufacturing areas with high risk factors, especially the packaging subsection specified for bulk packaging, the atomizer, and the fluidized bed. The temporal and spatial analysis showed the potential to reduce or relocate the monitoring effort, most notably related to total coliforms and Staphylococcus aureus, across the dairy plant due to homogeneity across the sampling subsections with little or no deviations. The results suggest a need to reevaluate the current EMP and the corrective action plan, especially with regard to detection of pathogens. Recommendations for optimization of the EMP are presented to assist the dairy industry with reviewing and revising the control measures and hazard assessment with regard to existing contamination issues.

Antibiotic-resistant (pathogenic and non-pathogenic) organisms and genes are now acknowledged as significant emerging aquatic contaminants with potentially adverse human and ecological health impacts, and thus require monitoring. This study is the first to investigate levels of resistance among Irish groundwater (private wells) samples; Escherichia coli isolates were examined against a panel of commonly prescribed human and veterinary therapeutic antibiotics, followed by determination of the causative factors of resistance. Overall, 42 confirmed E. coli isolates were recovered from a groundwater-sampling cohort. Resistance to the human panel of antibiotics was moderate; nine (21.4%) E. coli isolates demonstrated resistance to one or more human antibiotics. Conversely, extremely high levels of resistance to veterinary antibiotics were found, with all isolates presenting resistance to one or more veterinary antibiotics. Particularly high levels of resistance (93%) were found with respect to the aminoglycoside class of antibiotics. Results of statistical analysis indicate a significant association between the presence of human (multiple) antibiotic resistance ( p = 0.002–0.011) and both septic tank density and the presence of vulnerable sub-populations (<5 years). For the veterinary antibiotics, results point to a significant relationship ( p = <0.001) between livestock (cattle) density and the prevalence of multiple antibiotic resistant E. coli . Groundwater continues to be an important resource in Ireland, particularly in rural areas; thus, results of this preliminary study offer a valuable insight into the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in the hydrogeological environment and establish a need for further research with a larger geological diversity.

The aim of this study was to determine and identify bacteria inhabiting the supply chain of an airline's drinking water using phenotypic and 16S rDNA sequence-based analysis. Water samples (n = 184) were sourced from long-haul and short-haul aircraft, the airline water source and a water service vehicle. In total, 308 isolates were characterised and their identity determined, which produced 82 identified bacterial species belonging to eight classes: γ-Proteobacteria; β-Proteobacteria; α-Proteobacteria; Bacilli; Actinobacteria; Flavobacteria; Sphingobacteria and Cytophaga. Statistical differences in bacterial diversity were found to exist across sampling locations (X2 = 39.220, p = 0.009) and furthermore, differences were observed (X2 = 15.475, p = 0.030) across aircraft type (long- or short-haul). This study demonstrates the diverse nature of microorganisms within the aircraft drinking water supply chain. To the best of our knowledge, this is the most extensive study undertaken to date of microbial diversity in aircraft drinking water.

Salmonella encompasses a vast and highly related population of clinically and veterinary significant pathogens. The genus is responsible for an array of diseases such as typhoid fever and salmonellosis (a variety of illnesses including gastroenteritis), which cause public health issues globally. Even with the global recognition of Salmonella as a significant human and veterinary pathogen, the highly complex and evolving nomenclature system of Salmonella is problematic for clinicians, veterinarians, and microbiologists to comprehend. The present paper offers a review of the ever developing nomenclature for this bacterial species.

This study analysed microbiological and chemical sampling quality results of the water supply used in a milk production plant over a two-year period. Four sampling points were tested six days a week (n = 2032) and results were compiled for total coliforms, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus and total bacterial counts (TBC) at 21 degrees C, 30 degrees C and 37 degrees C as well as total and free chlorine. A significant difference in microbiological quality was found to exist between the cooling tower and the other sampling locations (F = 45.860, P < 0.001), with post-hoc analysis indicating a particularly significant difference for TBCs at 30 degrees C (P < 0.001). The results of this study identified contamination issues associated with the cooling water in terms of the heterogeneity of both microbiological and chemical concentrations and recommended the inclusion of further sampling parameters to further identify causation factors. For the non cooled water sampling locations, homogeneity in quality suggested that reduced sampling frequency could be implemented, thus reducing cost. The results of this study propose that in-depth analysis of both microbiological and chemical sampling results within a dairy plant can facilitate in the more cost effective sampling procedures and offer valuable insight into the development of site specific protocols. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

This study analyses the relationship between meteorological phenomena and outbreaks of waterborne-transmitted vero cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli (VTEC) in the Republic of Ireland over an 8-year period (2005-2012). Data pertaining to the notification of waterborne VTEC outbreaks were extracted from the Computerised Infectious Disease Reporting system, which is administered through the national Health Protection Surveillance Centre as part of the Health Service Executive. Rainfall and temperature data were obtained from the national meteorological office and categorised as cumulative rainfall, heavy rainfall events in the previous 7 days, and mean temperature. Regression analysis was performed using logistic regression (LR) analysis. The LR model was significant (p < 0.001), with all independent variables: cumulative rainfall, heavy rainfall and mean temperature making a statistically significant contribution to the model. The study has found that rainfall, particularly heavy rainfall in the preceding 7 days of an outbreak, is a strong statistical indicator of a waterborne outbreak and that temperature also impacts waterborne VTEC outbreak occurrence.

Foodborne disease (also referred to as foodborne illness or food poisoning) is any illness that results from the consumption of contaminated food, contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites. The economic costs associated with foodborne disease can be severe on people, food companies, and country reputation. Foodborne disease globally is still not under control and outbreaks can cause health and economic losses. The causes are unhygienic practices in food production, harvesting, and preparation. There are 31 main foodborne pathogens causing diseases; the significant ones such as Salmonella nontyphoidal, Campylobacter, Listeria, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli are monitored by national authorities, and outbreaks are assessed in depth to assess trends and determine the steps necessary to combat future outbreaks. Foodborne diseases can be mild with recovery in days, or severe resulting in hospitalization and death in certain patients.

A model is presented for the gravity-driven flow of rainwater descending through the soil layer of a green roof, treated as a porous medium on a flat permeable surface representing an efficient drainage layer. A fully saturated zone is shown to occur. It is typically a thin layer, relative to the total soil thickness, and lies at the bottom of the soil layer. This provides a bottom boundary condition for the partially saturated upper zone. It is shown that after the onset of rainfall, well-defined fronts of water can descend through the soil layer. Also the rainwater flow is relatively quick compared with the moisture uptake by the roots of the plants in the roof. In separate models the exchanges of water are described between the (smaller-scale) porous granules of soil, the roots and the rainwater in the inter-granule pores.

The travelling population is increasing globally year on year. International tourist arrival figures reached 1087 million in 2013 and 1133 million in 2014; of which 53% and 54% respectively accounted for air transport. The water on board aircraft is sourced from surface or ground water; piped to a central filling point and distributed to each aircraft by water service vehicles at the home base or at the destination airport. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the microbial, chemical (pH; Total and Free chlorine) and physical (temperature) quality of water from two aircraft, long- and short-haul, as well as from the original water source and the water service vehicle. A total of 154 water samples were collected and analysed. Long-haul flights were found to be significantly poorer in terms of microbial quality than short haul flights (p = 0.015). Furthermore, correlation and regression analysis showed that the water service vehicle was a significant source of increased microbial load in aircraft. Microbial diversity was also demonstrated, with 37 bacterial species identified belonging to eight classes: γ-Proteobacteria; β-Proteobacteria; α-Proteobacteria; Bacilli; Actinobacteria; Flavobacteria; Sphingobacteria and Cytophaga; using phenotypic and 16S rDNA sequence-based analysis. We present a novel quantified study of aircraft-related potable water supplies.

The food processing industry is of global economic importance. The consequences of microbial spoilage pose a risk to consumers' health, cause severe economic losses, and lack of trust in the world's food supply. Sensors have been identified as one method of delivering an online solution to microbial monitoring and detection. Conductometric sensors have not gained a significant share of the sensor market. The application of conductometric sensors has been widespread, in particular as gas sensors and for determining the quality of engine oil. Their application in microbial detection in food however, has been limited. This chapter outlines developments and the applications of conductometric sensors in general and in specific microbial detection applications.

Lime is one of the most versatile chemicals in the world. There are two main types of lime produced, quicklime and hydrated lime. Quicklime is formed during the calcination of limestone. Hydrated lime results from subsequent hydration of quicklime where required. Lime has been innovatively rediscovered to be a more environmentally sustainable product aiding in the implementation of new cleaner systems from, remediation of acid mine draining to key uses in water source treatment. Further research has been undertaken to investigate new roles for lime as an antimicrobial compound and environmentally friendly biocide. The uses of lime have evolved steadily over time; this is thought to be due to its ease of acquisition, affordable price and unique versatile properties. The aim of this literature review is to provide an informed view on the current application of lime and its potential novel uses in the future.