The study provides a radiocarbon sequence for the Iron Age occupation in the elevated areas of the Phoenician settlement of Lisbon, located in the Tagus estuary (Portugal). The dataset is based in ten animal and human samples recovered during archaeological excavations at Largo de Santa Cruz do Castelo. These samples are associated with distinct phases of the Iron Age, dated by the ceramic findings between the 7th and 5th century BCE, as well as a latter sample from the Roman Republican Period (2nd half of the 2nd century BCE). Despite the challenges posed by the 1st millennium BCE radiocarbon calibration, this dataset proves valuable for establishing a more detailed chronological framework. It represents a significant contribution to refining the timeline of Lisbon's Iron Age settlement and provides a stronger basis for interpreting local developments within the broader regional context.

Understanding the nature and tempo of global environmental responses to the ∼74,000 BP (∼74 ka) Toba volcanic super-eruption is based primarily on historical analogies and climate models that lack ground-truthing in regions distal to eruptions. Here, we report the first proxy-based terrestrial record of the immediate environmental impact of the Younger Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption on the hominin-occupied ecosystem in peninsular India, spanning six annual monsoonal cycles directly following the YTT event. We present a multiproxy paleoclimate dataset from Jwalapuram in southern India, featuring a geochemical characterization of multiple YTT tephra and hardpan layers, complemented by detailed stratigraphic observations, sedimentological insights, and stable carbon isotope data. Taken together, these multiple lines of evidence show a progressive trend of tephra weathering and strong evapotranspiration in the immediate aftermath of the YTT, suggesting multiannual regional warming. Our results underline the complex responses of regional environments to the Toba super-eruption, which extend beyond a simple widespread "volcanic winter."

This study investigates mobility during the transition from Muslim to Christian rule in the Algarve, southern Portugal (11th–13th centuries), using multi-isotope analysis to understand population dynamics during this complex conquest period. Skeletal remains from two key populations were analysed: the final Muslims buried in Loulé before the Christian conquest (necropolises of Quinta da Boavista and Hospital da Misericórdia) and the earliest Christians buried in Cacela-a-Velha following the Order of Santiago’s capture in 1240 (necropolis of Poço Antigo). Contemporary faunal remains from trash pits and storage silos were also examined (Loulé: Oficina do Senhor Carrilho; Cacela: Silo 7 of Largo da Fortaleza). Strontium, oxygen, and sulphur isotope analysis of human and animal remains were combined with plant sampling for environmental baselines. Machine learning algorithms integrated this data with published Iberian Peninsula plant isotope ratios to create updated strontium isoscape maps, enabling probabilistic geographic assignment of non-local individuals. Ancient DNA analysis of selected Muslim individuals provided additional mobility insights. Results reveal strikingly different mobility patterns. Muslim individuals were largely local ( 95

The consolidation of village life in the southern Andes implied profound transformations in human lifeways and in people's relationships with the environment, plants, and animals. Contributions from archaeological sciences have the potential to shed light on these transformations, particularly by providing new information about patterns of food production and consumption. In this article, we present the first results of organic residue analysis on ceramic containers of early village societies of northwestern Argentina (La Ci & eacute;nega Valley, AD 200-600) by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We tested previous characterizations of La Ci & eacute;nega village's subsistence strategies through the lens of absorbed organic residues in pottery. Preliminary evidence indicates a predominance of biomarkers associated with vegetable products in the vessels and a lower contribution of animal fats, suggesting a strong reliance on plant-based foods among early villager groups in La Ci & eacute;nega settlements. La consolidaci & oacute;n de la vida aldeana en los Andes del sur implic & oacute; profundas transformaciones en los modos de vida y en las relaciones de los grupos humanos con su entorno, con las plantas y los animales. Muchos de estos cambios pueden ser reconstruidos a partir de metodolog & iacute;as de las ciencias f & iacute;sicas y qu & iacute;micas aplicadas, espec & iacute;ficamente, a contextos arqueol & oacute;gicos, & aacute;rea de vibrante desarrollo en los & uacute;ltimos a & ntilde;os. En este art & iacute;culo presentamos los primeros resultados del an & aacute;lisis de residuos org & aacute;nicos (empleando cromatograf & iacute;a de gases acoplada a espectrometr & iacute;a de masas [CG-EM]) en recipientes cer & aacute;micos de las sociedades aldeanas tempranas del noroeste argentino (La Ci & eacute;nega, Tucum & aacute;n [200-600 dC]). A trav & eacute;s de la identificaci & oacute;n y caracterizaci & oacute;n de & eacute;steres et & iacute;licos de & aacute;cidos grasos preservados en ollas y cuencos arqueol & oacute;gicos, evaluamos las estrategias de subsistencia planteadas previamente para el valle de La Ci & eacute;nega. Las evidencias preliminares obtenidas indicaron un predominio de biomarcadores asociados con productos vegetales en las vasijas y un menor aporte de grasas animales, lo que sugiere que entre los primeros grupos de aldeanos de los asentamientos de La Ci & eacute;nega existi & oacute; una fuerte dependencia de alimentos de origen vegetal.

The intersection of socioeconomic policies and health in archaeological contexts highlights how ancient societies' structures, practices, and regulations influenced their people's health and well-being. This study investigates the diet and health of a 13th to 15th-century Portuguese town, Estremoz, known for having royal privileges. By analysing human remains for physiological stress indicators and employing stable isotopic analysis to estimate adult diet, the research provides insights into the life of this medieval population. Human remains (141 skeletons: 72 under 15 years old; 69 over 15 years old) from Rossio Marquees de Pombal (13th - 15th centuries) were analysed and faunal remains (N = 171) and bone collagen (N = 13 faunal remains; N = 37 human ribs: 14 females, 18 males, 5 undetermined) were examined to estimate adult diet using stable isotopic composition (S15N and S13C). Skeletal indicators of physiological stress (cribra orbitalia, cribra cranii, periosteal lesions, stature and body mass) were assessed to infer overall health. The diet was relatively uniform (S13C x = -18.3 +/- 0.46 %o; S15N x = 10.9 +/- 0.77 %o) with some outliers, mostly male, suggesting that there might have been outsiders in Estremoz attracted by the privileges given to its inhabitants. The low and non-severe frequency of physiological stress, particularly in females, indicates a good quality of life without major nutritional deficits. These findings illustrate how bioarchaeological studies can reveal the impact of social dynamics and cultural influences on past health.

EA-IRMS has been used to find isotope ratio patterns as a way of ascertaining the provenance of materials in several fields of science. In this work, EA-IRMS analysis of δ13C and δ15N was used to study historical rugs’ raw materials. The influence of chromophores in the isotope ratio of wool was studied by dyeing contemporary wool with traditional dyestuff and analyzing it by EA-IRMS. Additionally, aiming towards provenance determination, historical rugs’ samples were analyzed. In general, δ13C and δ15N of contemporary dyed wool showed no significant difference between samples (P > 0.05) which rebutted the hypothesis that chromophore isotope ratios influence those of wool. Furthermore, δ13C and δ15N of both contemporary and historical wool samples were indicative of sheep diets comprised exclusively of C3 unfertilized plants. Exception was made for one rug whose δ15N values were compatible with organically fertilized plants. Particularly, δ13C and δ15N ratios of historical samples showed significant inter-rugs differences (P < 0.05) which could evidence meteorological changes over the years. Intra-rug differences detected in only one of the three rugs studied could be linked to changes in sheep diet and pastures management practices due to drought conditions. In sum, this work's results showed that is possible to use EA-IRMS analysis of δ13C and δ15N to study dyed wool without chromophore interference.

In around 716 AD, the city of Santarém, Portugal, was conquered by the Berber and Arab armies that swept the Iberian Peninsula and went on to rule the region until the 12th century. Archaeological excavations in 2007/08 discovered an Islamic necropolis (Avenida 5 de Outubro #2-8) that appears to contain the remains of an early Muslim population in Santarém (8th- 10th century). In this study, skeletal material from 58 adult individuals was analysed for stable carbon (δ13Ccol; δ13Cap), nitrogen (δ15N) and sulphur (δ34S) isotope ratios in bones, and stable oxygen (δ18O), carbon (δ13Cen) and radiogenic strontium (87Sr/86Sr) isotopes in tooth enamel. The results of this study revealed a dietary pattern of predominantly C3-plant and domestic C3-fed herbivore consumption during adulthood (δ13Ccol and δ15N, respectively) but a higher proportion of C4-plant input during childhood (δ13Cen) for some individuals-interpreted as possible childhood consumption of millet porridge, a common practice in North Africa-in those with unorthodox burial types (Groups 1 and 2) that was not practiced in the individuals with canonical burials (Group 3). In this first mobility study of a medieval Muslim population in Portugal, δ18ODW values revealed greater heterogeneity in Groups 1 and 2, consistent with diverse origins, some in more humid regions than Santarém when compared to regional precipitation δ18O data, contrasting the more homogenous Group 3, consistent with the local precipitation δ18O range. Ancient DNA analysis conducted on three individuals revealed maternal (mtDNA) and paternal (Y-chromosome) lineages compatible with a North African origin for (at least) some of the individuals. Additionally, mobility of females in this population was higher than males, potentially resulting from a patrilocal social system, practiced in Berber and Arab communities. These results serve to offer a more detailed insight into the ancestry and cultural practices of early Muslim populations in Iberia.

Threatened benthic ecosystems need urgent tools for effective bioassessment and relevant management. EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) obligates member states to achieve GES (Good Environmental Status) for 11 descriptors of environmental state (MSFD; 2008/56/EC). From all of the descriptors, D4 that focuses on Food Webs is the most functional-oriented indicator, but also the most challenging to implement due to our limited knowledge on benthic interactions. Particularly, it is still unclear how spatially and temporally regulated abiotic variables determine the entire benthic food webs, and which benthic food web attributes best respond to these spatially and temporally derived environmental variations. To fill this gap, we measured the natural isotopic ratios (delta C-13 and delta N-15) of macrobenthic organisms and their food sources and build twelve food web topologies across three distinct sites (Navigator, Gambia, Troia) in summer and winter during two consecutive years. To assess these food web topologies, we applied isotopic metrics, further integrated with univariate and multivariate analysis to find food web-based indicators that best respond to these spatial and temporal variability. We found clear spatial patterns associated to an increase in primary production and quantity and quality of organic matter (OM). Sites with higher organic load and less quality OM (Navigator and Gambia) had simpler food webs, likely associated to high abundance of opportunistic meiobenthic species. Site located inside protected area (Troia) with high quality OM had the most complex food web characterized by high diversity of specialist consumers that used more efficiently available resources. Similarity metrics were valuable complementary tool that helped to further disentangle the causes of spatial variability, in this case distinguishing between two food webs (Navigator and Gambia) that had similar structures but different resource utilization. The temporal patterns were not so evident than the spatial patterns, although significant differences were reported between sampling occasions for the same metrics (maximum trophic position and the percentage of carnivores and omnivores, p < 0.05). The most complex Troias food web demonstrated greater responsiveness in capturing temporal differences in resource use, suggesting that more complex food webs are better equipped to reflect temporal variability. The integration of isotopic metrics complemented with multivariate and univariate analyses proved to be an important tool for the analysis of different aspects of the benthic food web complexity in a spatial-temporal context providing a promising approach to assess the functional integrity of the estuarine ecosystems, especially in the context of the descriptor 4 within MSFD.

Castro Marim is an Iron Age site from the Algarve region, Portugal. The earliest evidence of settlement, from the Late Bronze Age, dates to the 9th century BCE, with the Phoenician-Punic period dating from the 7th to the 3rd century BCE. This study focuses on the stable isotope analysis of plant and collagen of faunal remains to reconstruct cultivation and husbandry practices. Barley was the most abundantly cultivated cereal crop. The stable isotope results of barley indicate that the primary source of water was natural precipitation and the soil nitrogen was enriched through manuring. Δ13C and δ15N isotope values of stone pine support the previously suggested human management hypothesis. The differences from stable isotope data of domesticated fauna indicate a diverse management strategy for different species based on their economic importance to capitalize from the animal by-products such as wool and dairy products.

The study of the urban context in the contemporary center of Portugal’s capital city uncovered traces of daily lives that were abruptly interrupted and utterly transformed by the Great Lisbon Earthquake on the morning of 1 November 1755. Charred organic residue was recovered from a cylindrical vessel excavated from the storage area of the town house at the Rossio square. The archaeological sample was studied through a multi-analytical approach based on microstructural, elemental and biomolecular characterization by attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FT-IR), variable pressure scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (VP-SEM-EDS), and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The residue was identified as human faeces collected in the ceramic vessel for disposal, and further analysis provided additional information about diet and the living conditions in the 18th century.

ABSTRACT The palette used by the Portuguese painter Pedro Nunes (1586–1637) in the large panel depicting The Descent from the Cross (460 × 304 cm) painted in 1620 for Évora’s cathedral was investigated with a combination of the visual inspection of the paint surface and the analysis of the paint layers with microscopic, spectroscopic, and chromatographic techniques. Green earth and an orange artificial arsenic sulphide, two pigments identified for the first time in Portuguese paintings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, were found to be abundantly used in large areas of the composition. The results further reveal the choice of a rich palette also containing lead-white, lead-tin yellow, ochre, vermilion, verdigris, smalt, azurite, vegetable carbon black, and a red lake made of brazilwood and cochineal. All the pigments were bound in an oil-based medium. The introduction of two pigments new to the Portuguese conventional palette is a direct consequence of the painter’s training in Rome in the first decade of the seventeenth century.

Skeletal remains of two equid species, Equus caballus (horse) and Equus asinus (donkey), have been found in archaeological contexts throughout Iberia since the Palaeolithic and Chalcolithic periods, respectively. These two species play different economic and cultural roles, and therefore it is important to be able to distinguish between the two species to better understand their relative importance in the past human societies. The most reliable morphological features for distinguishing between the two domesticated equids are based on cranial measurements and tooth enamel folds, leading to only a small percentage of archaeological remains that can be identified to species. Ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis can be used to reliably distinguish the two equids, but it can be cost prohibitive to apply to large assemblages, and aDNA preservation of non-cranial elements is often low. Collagen peptide mass fingerprinting by matrix-assisted laser desorption time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry, also known as zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (ZooMS), is a minimally destructive and cost-effective alternative to aDNA analysis for taxonomic determination. However, current ZooMS markers lack resolution below the genus level Equus. In this paper, we report a novel ZooMS peptide marker that reliably distinguishes between horses and donkeys using the enzyme chymotrypsin. We apply this peptide marker to taxonomically identify bones from the Iberian Peninsula ranging from the Iron Age to the Late Modern Period. The peptide biomarker has the potential to facilitate the collection of morphological data for zooarchaeological studies of equids in Iberia and throughout Eurasia and Africa.

Anthracological analyses of charcoal samples retrieved from Pit 16 of Perdigões (Reguengos de Monsaraz, Portugal), a secondary deposition of cremated human remains dated back to the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, enabled the identification of 7 different taxa: Olea europaea, Quercus spp. (evergreen), Pinus pinaster, Fraxinus cf. angustifolia, Arbutus unedo, Cistus sp. and Fabaceae. All taxa are characteristic of both deciduous and evergreen Mediterranean vegetation, and this data might indicate that the gathering of woods employed for the human cremation/s occurred either on site, or in its vicinity. However, considering both the large distribution of the identified taxa and data about human mobility, it is not possible to conclusively determine the origin of the wood used in the cremation(s). Chemometric analysis were carried out to estimate the absolute burning temperature of woods employed for the human cremation/s. An in-lab charcoal reference collection was created by burning sound wood samples of the three main taxa identified from Pit 16, Olea europaea var. sylvestris, Quercus suber (evergreen type) and Pinus pinaster, at temperatures between 350 and 600 °C. The archaeological charcoal samples and the charcoal reference collection were chemically characterized by using mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy in the 1800-400 cm-1 range, and Partial Least Squares (PLS) regression method was used to build calibration models to predict the absolute combustion temperature of the archaeological woods. Results showed successful PLS forecasting of burn temperature for each taxon (significant (P <0.05) cross validation coefficients). The anthracological and chemometric analysis evidenced differences between the taxa coming from the two stratigraphic units within the Pit, SUs 72 and 74, suggesting that they may come from two different pyres or two different depositional moments.

A collection of relics from a regal donation of Queen Leonor (1458-1525) to the Madre de Deus Monastery, inserted in busts from the late 16th century and the first half of the 17th, is being studied from several perspectives. Through a multi-analytical methodology, this study aims to characterize the materials and techniques used in the sculptures’ production, searching for affinities and differences between them to shed light on possible origins and ordering processes. The analytical study includes the use of μ-FTIR, μ-XRD, μ-Raman spectroscopy, SEM-EDS, GC-MS and LC/DAD/MS. The results confirmed the use of materials and techniques well known and established in the 16th and 17th centuries in Portugal, such as gypsum and anhydrite in the white preparation, a predominantly kaolinitic clay used for the bole layer and highly pure gold alloys. The palette includes some of the most common pigments of the time (lead white, vermilion, red ochre, red lead, malachite, azurite, indigo, yellow ochre and carbon black). Nonetheless, there have been some less expected results, such as lead-tin yellow and realgar, all poorly documented in the Portuguese artistic production of this period, Prussian blue, and the use of a cochineal lake and lac dye in the relic’s containers.

A dieta das clarissas do Mosteiro de Santa Clara-a-Velha de Coimbra (séculos XIV a XVII) foi caracterizada através da realização de análises de isótopos estáveis de carbono (δ13C) e de azoto (δ15N) no colagénio ósseo de 28 esqueletos humanos. Confrontaram-se os resultados obtidos com dados históricos, carpológicos e zooarqueológicos. Os valores observados de δ13C (entre −18,3 ‰ e −16,5 ‰) e de δ15N (entre 11,6 ‰ e 13,6 ‰) sugerem uma alimentação homogénea, baseada em alimentos terrestres, sobretudo plantas C3 e animais que consomem essas plantas, provavelmente complementada com plantas C4, incluindo também alimentos marinhos e/ou recursos de água doce. O grande contributo de proteína animal revela que esta comunidade não terá seguido as regras de abstinência alimentar, algo corroborado historicamente pela prévia autorização dada pelas autoridades religiosas, aparentemente como forma de contornar as condições precárias do mosteiro, consequência das constantes cheias do rio Mondego. The diet of the clarisses of the Santa Clara-a-Velha Monastery of Coimbra (14th to 17th centuries) was characterized by the analysis of stable isotopes of carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) on 28 human skeletons. The results were compared with historical, carpological and zooarchaeological data. The values observed of δ13C (between −18.3 ‰ and −16.5 ‰) and δ15N (between 11.6 ‰ and 13.6 ‰) suggest a homogeneous diet, based on terrestrial foods (C3 plants and terrestrial protein), including marine foods and/or freshwater resources and likely some C4 plants. The community had a varied diet, with a high intake of animal protein, evading the rules of food abstinence. This option, with prior authorization given by the religious authorities, was taken due to the precarious conditions of the monastery, a consequence of the constant flooding of the Mondego River.

The Roman site of Torre dos Namorados (Fundão, Beiras region, central Portugal) is a rare find, identified as a Roman vicus (village), with evidence of making wine and olive oil. During the archaeological campaigns of 2006–2007, a rectangular Roman lacus musti (must, grape juice, settling vat) was found, built with tegulae (tiles) and bricks and containing thousands of charred grape pips and skins. By using a stepwise linear discriminant analysis method, a morphological comparison was made of these archaeological grape pips and with a reference collection of modern pips, both from cultivated Portuguese varieties of Vitis vinifera L. ssp. vinifera and from wild vines of Vitis vinifera L. ssp. sylvestris, to study similarities between them. The modern grape pips were charred in order to obtain suitable material to compare with the archaeological pips. The statistical analysis showed a clear association between the archaeological grape pips and wild grapes, suggesting that these were used for making wine in Roman times. The data presented here represent the first systematic study of Roman viticulture in the Lusitanian province of Iberia.

Temporary tattoos and dyes constitute a great analytical challenge in relation to the regulatory control of their ingredients. Most of these commercial products are not labeled according to their content and their chemical nature is highly diverse. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze these complex samples to evaluate the potential presence of metallic impurities, to ensure the safety of cosmetic products contributing to health protection. This study proposes a multi-analytical methodology, which includes handheld X-ray fluorescence (h-XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), complemented by variable pressure scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (VP-SEM-EDS) to fully characterize 34 commercial samples of jagua and henna tattoos and dyes. The approach allowed the identification of the main constituents providing complementary compositional data and differences between sample types were established. In addition, information on the degree of natural pigments homogeneity was also obtained. The results' discussion considering the current European cosmetics regulation may be useful to support the drafting of safety requirements and specific regulation.

AbstractThe consolidation of villager life in the Southern Andes implied profound transformations in human lifeways and groups’ relations with the landscape with the adoption of settled life and food production economies. Contributions from archaeological sciences can cast light into these research questions providing, for example, new information about patterns of susbsistence strategies. In this paper, we present the first organic residue analysis on ceramic containers of early villager societies of Northwestern Argentina (La Cienéga valley, ca. 200 BCE-900 CE) through two simultaneous lipid extraction methods (H2SO4/MeOH and CHCl3/MeOH). We aimed to put to test the existent characterization of the study area as a peripheric herding settlement evaluating the subsistence strategies and food economies of villager groups through the lens of absorbed organic residues in pottery. Preliminary evidence obtained in this article indicated a predominance of biomarkers associable to vegetable products in the vessels (i.e. maize) and a lower contribution of animal fats. Furthermore, a comparison and evaluation of the performance of each extraction method for specific compounds is given.

Forest fires are a recurrent ecological phenomenon in the Mediterranean basin. They induce molecular changes in soil organic matter (SOM) leading to immediate and long-term environmental consequences [1]. The SOM is of paramount importance as indicator of soil health [2]. Fire-induced changes in SOM include the alteration of biogenic chemical structures and the accumulation of newly formed ones, enhancing dynamics in the complex balance between the different C-types [2,3]. Therefore, understanding SOM molecular composition, before and after fire, is fundamental to monitor changes in soil health, as well as its natural or man-mediated recovery [3,4]. Our aim was to assess the molecular composition of organic matter in fire-affected leptosols, at two depths (0–2 and 2–5 cm) under different vegetation types located in the southwestern of Portugal (Aljezur, Algarve). The SOM characterization was conducted by analytical pyrolysis (Py-GC/MS), a technique based on the thermochemical breakdown of organic compounds in the absence of oxygen at elevated temperatures [5]. The Py-GC/MS has been found suitable for the structural characterization of complex organic matrices [4], providing detailed structural information of individual compounds considered fingerprinting of SOM. However, due to the relative high number of molecular compounds released by analytical pyrolysis, the use of graphical-statistical methods, such as van Krevelen diagrams, are usually applied to help monitoring SOM molecular changes produced by fire [3,4]. This work represents the first attempt to evaluate the fire effects in SOM using a detailed molecular characterisation of SOM under different vegetation canopies, recently affected by wildfire, in southern Portugal. References: [1] Naveh, Z., 1990. Fire in the Mediterranean – a landscape ecological perspective. In: Goldammer, J.G., Jenkins, M.J. (Eds.), Fire in Ecosystems Dynamics: Mediterranean and Northern Perspective. SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague. [2] González-Pérez, J.A., González-Vila, F.J., Almendros, G., Knicker, H., 2004. The effect of fire on soil organic matter—a review. Environ. Int. 30, 855–870. [3] Jiménez-Morillo, N.T., De la Rosa, J.M., Waggoner, D., et al., 2016. Fire effects in the molecular structure of soil organic matter fractions under Quercus suber cover. Catena 145, 266–273. [4] Jiménez-Morillo, N.T.; Almendros, G.; De la Rosa, J.M.; et al., 2020. Effect of a wildfire and of post-fire restoration actions in the organic matter structure in soil fractions. Sci. Total Environ. 728, 138715. [5] Irwin, W.J., 1982. Analytical pyrolysis—a comprehensive guide. In: Cazes, J. (Ed.), Chromatographic Science Series, 22: Chapter 6. Marcel Dekker, New York. Acknowledgments: This work was funded by national funds through FCT–Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (EROFIRE project, ref. PCIF-RPG-0079-2018). This research was funded by the European Union through the European Regional Development Funds in the framework of the Interreg V A Spain-Portugal program (POCTEP) through the CILIFO (Ref.: 0753_CILIFO_5_E) and FIREPOCTEP (Ref.: 0756_FIREPOCTEP_6_E) projects. In addition, this research was funded by the EU-FEDER co-funded project MARKFIRE (ref. P20_01073) from Junta de Andalucía. A.Z.M was supported by a CEECIND/01147/2017 contract from FCT, and a Ramón y Cajal contract (RYC2019-026885-I) from the Spanish Government (Ministerio de Ciencia en Innovación – MCIN).