Wetland ecosystem services (ES) are influenced in opposite ways by ecological threats and conservation management, yet their combined effects on ES trade-offs and synergies remain largely understudied. To address this, we developed an evaluation indicator system for 1977 Ramsar Sites globally and calculated indices of ES importance (ESI), ecological threat intensity (ETI), and conservation management intensity (CMI) using the extremum value method. Generalized additive models were applied to analyze the nonlinear responses of ES trade-offs and synergies along CMI and ETI gradients. We found that 58.9

February 2, World Wetlands Day, highlights the vital role of wetlands in biodiversity, climate regulation, food systems and human livelihoods. Although they cover a small fraction of Earth's surface, wetlands provide a disproportionate share of ecosystem services and mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration. Yet, over one-third of global wetlands have been lost in recent decades, weakening their ability to buffer climate extremes. Despite advances under frameworks such as the Ramsar Convention, protection remains fragmented and insufficient. We argue that effective conservation requires large-scale financial mechanisms and propose initiating discussions toward a Wetlands Forever Facility to enable integrated, equitable investments.

Introduced in the text of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands over five decades ago, the wetland wise use concept was a unique recognition of human-nature connectedness and a genuine precursor to sustainable development. Yet, the use of the term has been inconsistent within the Convention, and its application has been limited by a curtailed outlining of principles and the implementation framework. An overtly ecological framing of the wetland wise use concept, as was framed in the early days of the Convention, is insufficient to guide conservation practices in addressing the contemporary challenges facing these ecosystems, as decisions regarding wise use are not solely scientific or ecological. A fit-for-purpose interpretation of wise use would unshackle the concept from an overly instrumental framing to one conveying a deeper human-nature connectedness, built around the diverse values of nature, and fostering forms of human-nature connectedness that value sustainability and enhance supporting behaviors. Wetlands need to be considered as complex social-ecological systems, with ‘wetland character’ as the ‘system identity’. Wetland wise use, rather than an end in itself, is best considered as a ‘form of environmental management’ which ensures the goal of ‘maintaining wetland character’, within a safe operating space. A desirable wise use process is one that recognizes plural worldviews and values of nature, builds on diverse knowledge systems, and uses a coproduction process to engage diverse stakeholders and the public towards the goal of maintaining wetland character.

In recognition of the importance of inland waters, numerous datasets mapping their extents, types, or changes have been created using sources ranging from historical wetland maps to real-time satellite remote sensing. However, differences in definitions and methods have led to spatial and typological inconsistencies among individual data sources, confounding their complementary use and integration. The Global Lakes and Wetlands Database (GLWD), published in 2004, with its globally seamless depiction of 12 major vegetated and non-vegetated wetland classes at 1 km grid cell resolution, has emerged over the last few decades as a foundational reference map that has advanced research and conservation planning addressing freshwater biodiversity, ecosystem services, greenhouse gas emissions, land surface processes, hydrology, and human health. Here, we present a new iteration of this map, termed GLWD version 2, generated by harmonizing the latest ground- and satellite-based data products into one single database. Following the same design principle as its predecessor, GLWD v2 aims to avoid double counting of overlapping surface water features while differentiating between natural and non-natural lakes, rivers of multiple sizes, and several other wetland types. The classification of GLWD v2 incorporates information on seasonality (i.e., permanent vs. intermittent vs. ephemeral); inundation vs. saturation (i.e., flooding vs. waterlogged soils), vegetation cover (e.g., forested swamps vs. non-forested marshes), salinity (e.g., salt pans), natural vs. non-natural origins (e.g., rice paddies), and stratification of landscape position and water source (e.g., riverine, lacustrine, palustrine, coastal/marine). GLWD v2 represents 33 wetland classes and – including all intermittent classes – depicts a maximum of 18.2 ×106 km2 of wetlands (13.4 % of the global land area excluding Antarctica). The spatial extent of each class is provided as the fractional coverage within each grid cell at a resolution of 15 arcsec (approximately 500 m at the Equator), with cell fractions derived from input data at resolutions as small as 10 m. The upgraded GLWD v2 offers an improved representation of inland surface water extents and their classification for contemporary conditions (∼ 1984–2020). Despite being a static map, it includes classes that denote intrinsic temporal dynamics. GLWD v2 is designed to facilitate large-scale hydrological, ecological, biogeochemical, and conservation applications, aiming to support the study and protection of wetland ecosystems around the world. The GLWD v2 database is available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.28519994 (Lehner et al., 2025).

Agriculture is a main driver of global decline in wetlands, but in addressing its impact the diversity in agricultural production systems and their catchment interactions must be recognized. In this paper we review the impacts of food production systems on wetlands to seek a better understanding of agriculture-wetland interactions and identify options for increasing sustainability. Eight farming system types were defined based on natural resource use and farming intensity, and their impact on different wetland types assessed through their direct drivers of change. Indirect drivers (such as decision-making in food systems, markets, globalization and governance) were also summarized. Findings show that most inland wetlands are influenced by farming directly, through changes in water and nutrient supply and use of pesticides, or indirectly through catchment water, sediment and nutrient pathways. Coastal wetlands are mostly influenced indirectly. More sustainable food production can be achieved through continued protection of wetlands, improving efficiency in agricultural resource use generally (e.g. through conservation agriculture), but also through more integration within production systems (e.g. through crop-livestock-fish integration) or with wetlands (integrated wetland-agriculture), more support for small-scale producers, and a transformation towards balancing the provisioning, regulating and cultural ecosystem services of wetland agroecosystems within catchments.

Indigenous Peoples, local communities and non-profit organizations have been leading a growing global “Rights of Nature” movement that reconsiders the human-Nature relationship and returns to a recognition of Nature’s living beingness and inherent rights (Kaufman and Martin 2021; https://celdf.org/rights-of-nature/ accessed 21 October 2023). These perspectives have been shared by many cultures and societies throughout history and continue to be the foundation beliefs of many communities. This alternative attitude moves the human-Nature relationship from one of exploitation, depletion, degradation and loss to one based on relational values such as reciprocity, gratitude, and respect. For the populations of modern nation states, this perspective constitutes a paradigm shift that may lead to greater success in achieving conservation goals and support for restoration, regeneration, and re-wilding initiatives that might implement the recently agreed Global Biodiversity Framework (https://www.cbd.int/gbf/ accessed 20 October 2023).

Context National Wetland Parks (NWPs) are a unique form of protected areas in China that have experienced a rapid increase in number from zero to more than 900 over the past two decades.Aims We examine the underlying causes of the boom in NWPs and assess their far-reaching ecological and socio-economic impacts.Methods Utilising GIS information and vector maps, we analysed the spatial distribution of pilot and approved NWPs from 2005 to 2019. Document analysis was employed to explore resource-orientated and legal drivers that have prompted the growth of NWPs.Key results China's NWPs developed in three phases, namely, the exploration phase (2005-2007), the expansion phase (2008-2014) and the normalisation phase (2015-present). The demand for outdoor recreation and improved wetland legislation were the primary facilitators for the growth of NWPs.Conclusions The expansion of NWPs is an important contributor to nature conservation and ecological civilisation, yielding a range of ecological, economic and social benefits.Implications China's experiences in NWPs offers valuable lessons and implications for global nature conservation. Implementing a long-term management mechanism for NWPs is recommended to enhance the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. The number of National Wetland Parks (NWPs) distributed across China has grown from zero to more than 900 over the past two decades. Is this unlimited growth always beneficial? After analysing the distribution and dynamic trends of China's NWPs, we examined the resource-orientated and legal drivers that prompted the growth and its far-reaching ecological, economic, social outcomes and impacts.

Natural resource management in Australia is beset with 'wicked' problems: diminishing biodiversity, increasing soil erosion, spreading soil salinity and global climate change all impact private landholders across rural Australia. These problems highlight the complexity of biodiversity conservation, and the need for inclusive, respectful approaches that enable the participation of rural communities, private landholders and government agencies to effectively manage biodiversity on public and private lands. To address these problems, some landholders, rural communities and other stakeholders are seeking evidence-based solutions through directly applicable research. In this paper, we identify current barriers to such research and highlight principles and processes for co-designing and managing research based on mutual trust, respect, power sharing and acceptance of various knowledge systems, as embodied in the theory of reconciliation ecology. We suggest that a 'community of practice' approach could assist in establishing effective deliberative relations as a basis for active collaboration in natural resource management research to address these complex problems.

Maintaining the flow of valuable ecosystem services that wetlands provide depends on an understanding of their ecological character and the interconnected ecosystem processes that produce those services. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the abiotic and biotic factors related to wetland hydrology, wetland biota, and biogeochemical dynamics that are the foundation of ecosystem processes and the subsequent generation of beneficial services. An understanding of ecosystem processes is essential if effective management strategies are to be used to offset human impacts, restore wetlands that have been degraded, and maintain the ecological character of wetlands as required under the wise use provisions of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

Designating and conserving at least one Wetland of International Importance (Ramsar Sites) is one of the three primary obligations of Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Wetlands can be designated under one or more of the nine criteria related to the representativeness of wetland types or biological diversity. Ramsar Sites now cover 2.54 × 106 km2 and encompass 59.5% inland, 15.5% coastal, and 25.0% having both inland and coastal elements. Human-made wetlands occur in 35.5% of the Ramsar Sites and of these 32.4% occur in sites that have both inland and coastal elements. The distribution of Ramsar Sites in relation to marine coastal and shelf and freshwater biogeographic regionalisation systems, Marine Ecoregions of the World (MEOW), and Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (FEOW), illustrates the uneven distribution of the sites and gaps in coverage. Although the number of Ramsar Sites and global coverage continues to increase, success in achieving specific targets of the Ramsar Strategic Plan and supporting related Sustainable Development Goals and in particular Aichi Target 11 is still a work in progress. The Ramsar Site network contributes at least 1% of the 17% Aichi target for inland water areas, but an unknown percentage of the 10% target for coastal and marine areas.

Knowledge of the geographic distribution, types, and change in extent over time of wetland ecosystems informs policy, planning, and decision-making and has long been recognised by the Ramsar Convention as essential to achieve its aims of the conservation and wise use of all wetlands. Yet, only one-third of Ramsar Contracting Parties have reported having completed a national wetland inventory. Wetland remote sensing can fill this gap by providing geospatial datasets at the relevant scales and levels of detail. Recent information suggests that the global area of wetlands is approximately 12–16 × 106 km2, but gaps exist for regions and wetland classes, so current estimates are likely still underestimates. The most global wetland area is inland natural wetlands, with much smaller areas of coastal wetlands and human-made wetlands. The largest wetland areas are in Asia, North America and Latin America, and the Caribbean. The extent of complete national wetland inventories is improving and has the potential to provide valuable data for comparison and benchmarking other mapping approaches.

The Ramsar Convention on the conservation and wise use of the World's wetlands was agreed in response to widespread recognition of the declining condition of wetlands and the impact of this on wetland habitats and associated fauna. Since 1971, over 2000 wetlands have been listed as internationally important by 172 countries and covering more than 2,000,000 km2. There have been considerable advances in the scientific understanding of wetlands, and today, the monitoring of these systems draws on multiple disciplinary approaches. The Convention itself has responded to these advances and the ongoing challenge to conserve the world's wetlands. Importantly, signatory nations regularly report on the condition of wetlands, update listings, and have adopted a framework to ensure wise use of all wetlands. In turn, healthy wetlands are increasingly seen to afford considerable ecosystem services to human communities that rely on them for the provision of food and water and recreation and for their cultural and aesthetic values. Whilst the Convention has now passed its 50th anniversary, it is increasingly recognised that wetlands continually change over many time scales and that direct human pressures are merely one of the drivers that affect wetlands. The monitoring of these changes continues to allow the Convention and signatory nations to amend the framework to reflect emerging understanding of wetland change. These advances enable the Convention to encourage, and better allow, signatory nations to pursue social and economic outcomes whilst continuing to contribute to the pursuit of conserving the natural assets accommodated within the global network of significant wetlands.

A Contracting Party to the Ramsar Convention assumes certain obligations under international law: designation and conservation of wetlands of international importance (Ramsar Sites), wise use of all wetlands within its territory, and international cooperation regarding shared wetland resources, including species. Although it is a framework convention that lacks a formal enforcement mechanism, the Ramsar Convention influences domestic legal regimes in a number of ways. Its impact on domestic laws, policies, and practices for wetlands depends in part on whether a particular Party subscribes to a monist, dualist, or mixed approach to international law. In a monist system, Ramsar obligations, including those flowing from Resolutions agreed upon at the regular Conference of Parties, may apply directly within a domestic legal regime. Under a dualist approach, Ramsar obligations may require specific implementing legislation before they are effective within the domestic sphere.

The floodplain wetlands of northern Victoria are crucial for conservation of biodiversity and the livelihoods of people. Extensive ecosystem degradation and recent extreme floods and droughts have highlighted the urgent need for more sustainable management. We draw on expertise in ecology, hydrology, climatology and governance to synthesise key knowledge and options for enhanced conservation of the floodplains. A key finding is the need for more flexible mechanisms for delivering water to the diverse array of wetlands. A key option is ‘relaxing constraints’ that involves agreements with selected landholders to enable pulses of environmental water to fill river channels and safely spill onto low-lying floodplain wetlands. This should improve conservation of biodiversity, better manage flood risk and support a diverse range of local agricultural and recreational industries. These options may aid Victorians to find better ways of managing the rich lands, waters and biota of the floodplains in the southern part of the Murray–Darling Basin.

The conflict between humans and wildlife is a global issue in the increasingly shared landscape. Human–Wildlife Conflict (HWC) is often viewed as a threat to most of the rural populace of the world, as crop losses to wildlife remove the household’s food supply, and are an economic drain on the homestead. In this paper, we study the extent of crop damage by wild animals in two districts of Bhutan: Trashiyangtse and Tsirang. We surveyed 431 respondents from the two districts and interviewed 40 central and local government officials and residents. The vast majority of respondents from both study districts (Trashiyangtse = 98.7%; Tsirang = 92.2%) reported having experienced conflicts with wild animals from 2017 to 2019. On average, respondents’ households lost over half a month to more than a month’s worth of household food requirements, with some households claiming to have lost over six months’ worth of household food requirements, annually to wild animals. The loss of crops to wild animals removes households’ food supply and discourages farming, resulting in increased fallow lands. The fallow lands which are close to human settlements, then become habitats for wild animals, aggravating the incidence of HWC, and as such are directly linked to reduced food production.

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Ramsar sites and other wetlands around the globe have been degraded by various anthropogenic activities and would benefit from targeted wetland restoration efforts. Although the Ramsar Convention has stressed the 'wise use' of wetlands and has published many documents on the principles and importance of wetland restoration, some Ramsar site managers and their restoration practitioners may lack guidance on the applied techniques they need to effectively restore wetland systems. The planning, design, and implementation of projects that restore the processes needed to sustain healthy wetlands require a thorough understanding of the site, watershed, and needs of stakeholders; clear goals and measurable objectives, with appropriate performance standards; and a detailed work plan, especially for sites requiring earthwork. The availability and systematic sharing of technical guidance for the practice of wetland restoration will improve project outcomes on Ramsar sites and other important wetlands. It also aligns with the Convention's priority of encouraging holistic approaches to restoration, which can be bolstered by better engaging the general public about the need and benefits of restoration, making long-term commitments to restoration projects, and planning for climate change.

With rapid urbanisation across the globe, constructed wetlands are becoming integral components of urbanised landscapes. Their key purpose is to treat urban stormwater for the reduction of nutrient, sediment, and other pollutants before they escape further downstream. Aesthetics and biodiversity have become secondary objectives, but other environmental benefits are often overlooked. With climate change being an unavoidable phenomenon, there needs to be a holistic view to constructing wetlands. The chapter will highlight the above based on experience in the Sydney Olympic Park (Australia) wetlands and offer a comprehensive approach to achieving multiple outcomes at the same time sustaining the benefits from small wetlands. The experiences are applicable to other locations, especially where wetland loss has occurred and population or development pressures preclude the creation of large wetlands.

Solutions for addressing wetland loss in the Anthropocene will need to be built on more nuanced understanding of the relationships between human society and nature, including wetlands, as well as an understanding of human context. The current framing of ecological character and wise use perpetuates a nature–human dichotomy. Social components and interactions can be brought into the ecological concepts by adopting a more inclusive and comprehensive term 'wetland character' and using a social–ecological systems framework framing built around system entities, interactions, and system-level emergence phenomena. Management of these complex systems needs to be underpinned by an ethic that acknowledges the diversity of worldviews and values, recognising that wise use may be defined differently by each of these. The 50th year of Ramsar Convention provides an appropriate moment to set an integrative agenda in motion allowing insights from social sciences to permeate its core concepts.