Upper-elementary multilingual students benefit from metalinguistic engagement, the process of analyzing, manipulating, and reflecting on language. Research suggests that higher-order activities, including analysis, are particularly valuable for students' language and literacy development. Yet few studies document what this instruction looks like in elementary classrooms. In this qualitative study, we examine how two teachers facilitated metalinguistic engagement using CLAVES, a small-group, language-based reading program for upper-elementary multilingual students. Data include transcripts from 20 lessons during two instructional units. Based on sociocultural discourse analysis, we found that students frequently engaged in linguistic analysis across multiple language domains but rarely provided evidence to justify their analytical decisions. Most analysis focused solely on English, although in some morphology and vocabulary lessons students connected, compared, or contrasted forms and processes in English and Spanish. Nearly all instances of students' analysis were prompted by teachers and supported by curricular materials. Teachers frequently explained and modeled aspects of linguistic analysis but seldom modeled how to provide evidence to support their analytical decision-making. We discuss implications for curriculum, professional development, and future research.

This study examined whether home language backgrounds moderated the association between derivational morphological awareness (MA) and reading comprehension in English for two bilingual groups in upper elementary schools. Participants were 171 bilingual students from Grades 4 and 5 (56 Spanish–English students; 115 Chinese–English students). Results indicated that the Chinese–English group substantially outperformed their Spanish–English counterparts on English derivational MA. Regression analyses indicated a statistically significant interaction between the home language backgrounds of bilingual students and English derivational MA in predicting their English reading comprehension. Our regression analysis revealed a significantly higher predictive power of derivational MA for text comprehension in Chinese–English bilingual students compared to their Spanish–English counterparts. These findings expand current reading theories by illuminating how home language backgrounds relate to bilingual children’s ability to decipher intricate English word structures when comprehending English written texts.

Small groups are commonly used in elementary reading classrooms, but relatively little research has examined the social factors that support small group reading instruction. This study tests whether the number of hang-out ties (i.e., the number of ties between students who like to hang out together) in small groups predicts reading comprehension among multilingual children in Grades 4 and 5, and whether interactions differ in small groups with high and low numbers of hang-out ties. We leverage data from a randomized controlled trial to examine whether the number of group hang-out ties predicts the later reading comprehension scores of participating multilingual students (N = 143; 46% female; 57% Asian American) using autoregressive path analysis. Furthermore, we explore differences in the patterns of interaction for groups with low (e.g., 0 to 2 ties) and high (e.g., 3 to 6) numbers of hang-out ties to see whether these differences might help explain the predictiveness of group hang-out ties on reading comprehension. Results indicated that the number of group hang-out ties negatively predicted later reading comprehension. Exploratory analyses of interaction patterns using observation data revealed that teachers asked more open-ended questions and elicited more student responses in groups with low numbers of hang-out ties. These findings suggest that small-group instruction may be most effective when students can learn from peers they know less well, as these other peers may offer novel linguistic assets, and that teachers may foster more group discussion when peers do not have existing hang-out ties.

Argumentation is a critical genre of writing that elementary school students are expected to develop, but little is known about how different domains of language contribute to argumentative writing. To explore this, we identified two domains of language: linguistic knowledge (lexical, morphological, and syntactic skills) and linguistic awareness (ability to identify and manipulate discourse- and text-level features). We worked with 119 fourth and fifth grade Spanish- and Portuguese-English bilingual students in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. We asked whether students’ linguistic knowledge served as a direct predictor of argumentative writing, or as an indirect predictor of argumentative writing, mediated by linguistic awareness. We explored this question with two writing outcomes: students’ argumentation and counter-argumentation. Controlling for orthographic knowledge, essay length, and English learner status, structural equation modeling revealed that students’ linguistic knowledge predicted their argumentative writing indirectly through linguistic awareness, but not directly. Neither the direct nor indirect effects structural model predicted students’ counter-argumentation. Our results extend theory on school-related writing tasks by differentiating between linguistic knowledge and linguistic awareness in understanding bilingual students’ written argumentation, with implications for instruction.

Language is essential for making meaning in written communication, and argument writing is a key genre of schooling to which language contributes rich resources for constructing different types of arguments. Despite being a challenging language practice, argument writing research lacks investigation into the language demands of this writing genre. Using an explanatory sequential mixed methods approach, the present study explored the role of language in adolescent students' argument writing through the lens of the relationship between argumentation features (reasons, counterarguments, rebuttals) and students' use of epistemic modality devices (EMDs) - linguistic tools that express the author's knowledge of and belief about the possibility of whether a state of affairs is true (e.g., 'must', 'maybe'). Argument writing samples from 115 upper elementary students were analyzed to explore the relationship between EMDs and written argumentation. Descriptive analysis showed that reasons and modal auxiliaries that indicated certainty ('will', 'would') were most frequently employed by the students. Multiple regression analyses revealed a positive, significant relationship between number of reasons in students' writing and their EMD usage. Subsequent qualitative content analysis identified two salient patterns of how EMDs assisted with reason construction, (1) predicting consequences, and (2) speculating causes of behaviors. The findings emphasize the close relation between language and argumentation and hence highlight the importance of the explicit instruction of language features pertinent to argumentative discourse.

In this essay, we address the multilingual challenge that is faced by both the "science of reading" and the field of educational psychology. We describe some significant contributions made by educational psychology to the field's understanding of the "science of reading" as well as multilingual reading, more specifically. While these contributions have been productive, they do not reflect contemporary multilingual theories that pertain to reading and literacy. To move reading research toward a more multilingual orientation, we propose that language be considered as a verb, to language, and that the language user be considered as a languager, who brings their own unique set of linguistic resources to bear on the reading process. Each languager, we argue, possesses their own dynamic idiolect, comprising three components: linguistic awareness, sensemaking, and linguistic lamination. After providing examples of the dynamic idiolect in instructional contexts, we illustrate how its three components can be captured in empirical contexts to operationalize the dynamic idiolect and move educational psychology toward a more multilingual "science of reading."

In this article Renata Love Jones and Patrick Proctor introduce the notion of pursuing language to engage in critical dialogue about the nature and focus of language and literacy education in multilingual and multicultural contexts. A persistent threat in language and literacy education is standardization that constrains how language and literacy are operationalized, which further limits how children can bring their unique communicative practices into schools and classrooms. In response, the authors describe pursuing language as a state of being responsive in our language and literacy instruction, with the goal of developing literacy skills through culturally affirming and anti-oppressive practices. They operationalize this pursuit of language in classroom contexts by delineating a framework of critical metalinguistic engagement. The article begins with a theory of languaging and goes on to unpack critical metalinguistic engagement by each of its component parts—critical, metalinguistic, and engagement—and concludes with an argument for being intentional about pursing language through relationships and dispositions that affirm language diversity in educational practice and research.

This multiple case study explores the conceptualisations of bilingual education within the Massachusetts state policy, An Act Relative to Language Opportunity for Our Kids (LOOK Act), and teacher candidates’ experiences from a bilingual teacher preparation programme in Massachusetts. Data consisted of policy documents, semi-structured interviews, and memos. Overall, the LOOK Act primarily framed bilingual education as a remedial and commodifiable educational model. Specifically, the law referred to bilingual programmes as programmes that focus on promoting the acquisition of English language proficiency. At the same time, it distinguishes bilingual programme models from each other by referring to one model, dual language education, as an academically rigorous programme and to transitional bilingual education as a temporary programme solely for English Learners. Teacher candidates described how the above orientations toward bilingual education were present in their coursework and teaching experiences. They also critiqued the rigid communicative approaches that the LOOK Act established for families and bilingual programmes. This study’s implications include (a) further investigation of teacher candidates’ negotiation of governmental educational policies throughout their transition as practicing teachers, and (b) teacher education programmes’ integration of opportunities for teacher candidates to examine and make sense of educational policies.

Translanguaging pedagogy is an approach to educational equity that harnesses multilingual learners' communicative repertoires (e.g., home languages, non-standard varieties, and gestures) by strategically incorporating them in the classroom to ensure students' active participation and meaningful learning. This paper proposes a research-informed continuum that captures a range of possibilities for integrating translanguaging in language and literacy instruction. This continuum provides insight into how educators may make socially just instructional and curricular decisions that are based on recognizing multilingual students' languages, cultures, and ways of knowing as valuable assets in the classroom.

This article explores how a second-grade teacher’s strategic talk moves supported her multilingual students, many of whom were designated as English Learners (ELs), to engage with complex content using purposeful, authentic communication during a 14-week read-aloud unit focused on historical changemakers. Collaborative coding of whole-class and small-group discussions indicated that the teacher played a pivotal role in facilitating her students’ productive interactions with content and with each other. Through her range in strategic talk moves, variation in those moves based on participant structures (i.e., whole group, small group), and close attention to students’ individual needs, she positioned her young multilingual students as capable, critical thinkers.

In this article, the authors draw from 3 years of intensive work with multilingual students and their teachers to describe four principles to guide multilingual literacy instruction.

This two-year longitudinal study examined the role of linguistic interdependence between Spanish and English among a group of first, second, and third generation immigrant Spanish-English bilingual children. Starting from a theoretical perspective on linguistic interdependence that takes into account linguistic constructs and their measurement, the study reports on the English developmental trajectories of 112 Latinx bilinguals in second, third, and fourth grade. Multilevel growth modeling was used to develop trajectories for English vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and semantics and assess the degree to which they were predicted by initial levels of Spanish vocabulary and Spanish syntax. Findings showed that Spanish syntax was a significant predictor for English intercepts for both syntax and morphology. These cross-linguistic effects were moderated by generation status such that the effect of Spanish syntax on English morphology and syntax was, in fact, negative for first-generation students, while positive for second and third generation students. The finding that more metalinguistically focused constructs (syntax and morphology) are robust to cross-linguistic association is consistent with current theories on linguistic interdependence. Because the groups were comparable on Spanish syntax performance, the effect of generation status has some implications for levels of English proficiency necessary in order for linguistic interdependence to manifest.

Writing is a critical dimension of literacy that is grounded in language and intimately connected to reading. However, instruction to support writing remains understudied, particularly among bilingual students. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the CLAVES intervention specifically on argument writing. The CLAVES intervention is a multicomponent, small-group intervention focused on language and literacy that was designed with bilingual learners in mind. CLAVES is an acronym for comprehension, linguistic awareness, and vocabulary in English and Spanish and means keys or clues in Spanish. It includes text-based discussions, explicit language instruction, and support for argument writing. The study was conducted with 239 Spanish-English or Portuguese-English students in grades 4 and 5. There were 120 students in the intervention and 119 students in the business as usual control group. Findings showed positive effects of the intervention on two identified aspects of argument writing: argument and counterargument.

Translanguaging pedagogy is gaining widespread recognition as an approach that recognizes and builds on multilingual students’ linguistic resources. Research on translanguaging pedagogy has predominantly focused on classroom language practices, while studies on the design and enactment of translanguaged instruction are limited. This pilot study contributes to the knowledge base on translanguaged instruction through the design, implementation, and examination of students’ engagement with the content taught in a set of translanguaged lessons. These lessons were based on a language‐based English reading curriculum for Spanish‐English bilingual upper elementary students. Our approach to translanguaging pedagogy was characterized by a) use of bilingual texts; b) flexible language use; and c) bilingual language instruction. This article focuses on the lessons that addressed morphology and syntax instruction. Within an ethnomethodological approach, the discourse and interactions during the morphology and syntax instruction components of the lesson‐cycles were examined to understand how students engaged with the language structures taught, and how translanguaging manifested in their talk about language. Our analyses revealed translanguaging as enabling students to perform linguistic analyses in which they: (a) established connections between English and Spanish morphemes; b) compared English and Spanish morphology and syntax; and c) explored alternative syntactic structures. As such, translanguaged instruction supported students’ metalinguistic awareness and cognitive engagement, and enabled them to position themselves as expert linguists. This study provides evidence about the affordances of translanguaged literacy instruction, which is needed to continue stimulating the ideological shift from monolingual to multilingual perspectives in the education of bilingual students.

Orthographic and linguistic knowledge are known predictors of reading and writing, yet little research with adolescent readers explores how such knowledge predicts reading and writing in a single model. We worked with 583 adolescent readers in remedial reading classes in grades 6-8 to collect indicators of orthographic and linguistic knowledge as well as reading comprehension and written expression. Using structural equation modeling, we examined how orthography and language predicted reading and writing and whether reading predicted writing and vice versa. We found that morphology, syntax, and orthography all independently predicted reading and writing, but linguistic knowledge was more strongly associated with reading than writing. Writing and reading did not differ in their effects on one another. Results extend theory on the relationship between language, reading, and writing and add to the research base on adolescent readers with implications for curriculum and instruction.