The Aedes mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of many severe diseases. Novel integrated vector management techniques like alginate hydrogel beads and appealing toxic sugar bait have strengthened control efforts. These techniques help to control mosquitoes by taking advantage of their attraction to sugar. Different types of sugar that mosquitoes ingest during feeding can affect the makeup of the microbiome in the midgut. The mosquito midgut microbiome maintains immune priming and baseline immune activity. Therefore, the current focus of this study is on utilizing microbial communities for vector control measures with a particular emphasis on how they consume various forms of sugars. Both wild and lab strains of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquito samples were reared, and attractive targeted sugar baits (ATSBs) infused with Chrysanthemum, mango, mix and control solutions. Then, the impact of bacterial communities was assessed using 16S rRNA gene sequences. According to our findings, the majority of the bacterial species in mango and mixed treatments belonged to the Enterobacteriaceae family. A total of 24 different bacterial species were found in Aedes mosquitoes that fed on mango ATSBs. The isolates were found to be members of three phyla from Actinobacteria (4.16%), Firmicutes (54.17%), and Proteobacteria (41.67%). Data reveals that different species, strains, and diets affect the midgut bacterial diversity in the mosquitoes. In addition to strengthening our knowledge concerning the way this bacterium shapes the microbial community, a thorough investigation of the prevalence of the midgut bacterial community is essential for alerting present and future mosquito and disease control initiatives.

A major challenge to global vector control efforts is the increasing resistance of Aedes mosquitoes to conventional insecticides. Since they are the main vectors of dengue, Zika, and chikungunya, sustainable and environmentally friendly approaches are essential for vector control. Attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSBs) take advantage of mosquitoes’ propensity for sugar and can offer an alternative strategy. However, further research is needed to investigate the performance of ATSBs, especially in determining and assessing attractant combinations that might increase mosquito attraction and feeding efficiency. This study examines the feeding preferences of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus for several fruit-based ATSB formulations. We employed three assays of attractants: mango alone, banana alone, and a combined mango–banana formulation, as well as a control set. Three replicates of each species at a 50

INTRODUCTION:Three billion people globally are at risk of Japanese Encephalitis (JE), a mosquito-borne disease primarily spread by Culex mosquitoes. Despite the availability of JE vaccine, uptake is limited and a deeper understanding of people's knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours (KABs) towards JE vaccine is needed to improve this. This study systematically reviewed the existing research on KABs towards JE vaccination, with a view to informing JE vaccine program delivery, policy and practice. METHODS:Seven bibliometric databases, grey literature and references of included studies were searched for primary studies on KABs towards JE vaccination. Search outputs were independently screened; data were extracted and synthesised descriptively. RESULTS:Of the 26 studies included, most were conducted in JE endemic countries and examined four participant groups: travellers from non-endemic settings, caregivers of vaccine recipients and non-traveller adults from endemic settings, and vaccine providers/advocates from both settings. Of the few studies, adult vaccine recipients had low knowledge and awareness of the vaccine, whereas caregivers' knowledge and awareness were higher. Attitudes towards JE vaccination were generally positive and KABs were often influenced by health workers, community leaders, risk perception, cost, time constraints, migration, and vaccine availability and accessibility. CONCLUSION:There were limited KABs studies regarding JE vaccination using rigorous and consistent methodological approaches. This review highlights the barriers to JE vaccination and the role of health professionals and vaccine advocates in JE vaccination programs. Focusing on empowering these groups is key to increasing JE vaccine uptake across different populations.

The effective control of Aedes mosquitoes is increasingly challenging due to the presence of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes. Hence, attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSBs) can be used as an alternative strategy to insecticides. The introduction of suitable attractants into baits is crucial, as it determines the number of mosquitoes attracted to them. This study involved the preparation of ATSBs as a medium for liquid bait carriers aimed at developing mosquito baiting tools. Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus were tested for non-choice and choice assays against various ATSBs (mango, Chrysanthemum, and their mix). In addition, olfactory preference index for mosquitoes was calculated using preference index formula followed by independent t- test to determine the significant differences, (p < 0.05) between ATSBs various choices. Furthermore, the midgut tissue of the mosquitoes was observed by using histology method. The wild and lab strain Ae. aegypti showed a significant attractancy towards mango ATSBs with a value of (p = 0.004) and (p = 0.04) respectively. Mango attractant is the most preferred by both Aedes sp. However, the mix ATSBs is secondarily preferred while Chrysanthemum is the least preferred ATSBs. The histology results showed that the midgut of mosquitoes that feed on the treated ATSBs exhibit alteration and degeneration. In the context of integrated pest management, the application of ATSBs in mosquito control may diminish the reliance on chemical pesticides, as natural substances include inherent volatile emissions that attract or repel insects. Consequently, the continuous release of the natural attractant odour may play a significant role in the attractive toxic sugar bait, acting as both an attractant and a lethal mechanism to combat disease transmitted by mosquitoes in the future.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) causes ~100,000 clinical cases and 25,000 deaths annually worldwide, mainly in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific and mostly in children. JEV is transmitted to humans through the bite of mosquitoes that have fed on competent hosts. Abiotic factors, such as seasonal rainfall, influence transmission. Transmission models have an important role in understanding disease dynamics and developing prevention and control strategies to limit the impact of infectious diseases. Our goal was to investigate how transmission models capture JEV infection dynamics and their role in predicting and controlling infection. This was achieved by identifying published JEV transmission models, describing their features and identifying their limitations, to guide future modelling. A Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA‐ScR)‐guided scoping review of peer‐reviewed JEV transmission models was conducted. Databases searched included PubMed, ProQuest, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar. Of the 881 full‐text papers available in English, 29 were eligible for data extraction. Publication year ranged from 1975 to 2023. The median number of host populations represented in each model was 3 (range: 1–8; usually humans, mosquitoes and pigs). Most (72% [n = 21]) models were deterministic, using ordinary differential equations to describe transmission. Ten models were applied (representing a real JEV transmission setting) and validated with field data, while the remaining 19 models were theoretical. In the applied models, data from only a small proportion of countries in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific were used. Limitations included gaps in knowledge of local JEV epidemiology, vector attributes and the impact of prevention and control strategies, along with a lack of model validation with field data. The lack and limitations of models highlight that further research to understand JEV epidemiology is needed and that there is opportunity to develop and implement applied models to improve control strategies for at‐risk populations of animals and humans.

Pest management programmes can operate more effectively when movement patterns of target species are known. As individual insects are difficult to track, genomic data can instead be used to infer movement patterns based on pest population structure and connectivity. These data can also provide critical information about cryptic taxa relevant to management. Here we present the first genomic investigation of Aedes vigilax, the Australian saltmarsh mosquito, a major arbovirus vector across Australasia. We used a ddRAD pool-seq approach and a draft genome assembly to investigate genetic variation in 60 Ae. vigilax pools from across Australia but with a focus on urban Newcastle and Sydney, NSW. There was strong genetic structure between samples from the west and east coasts of Australia, and additional structure that differentiated east coast populations. Within Newcastle and Sydney, contrasting patterns of genetic structure were evident. In Newcastle, there was no differentiation among subregions up to 60 km apart. In Sydney, samples from one urban subregion were differentiated from others < 3 km apart, and this structure was stable across sampling years. Heterozygosity and Tajima's D indicated no bottlenecks in Newcastle or Sydney populations, suggesting this structure represents a gene flow barrier. Nuclear differentiation patterns contrast with previous mtDNA data indicating two COI clades in the east coast, one of which was also present in Western Australia. The panmixia over 60 km across the Newcastle region corroborates previous field observations of high dispersal capacity in this mosquito. These findings indicate specific challenges that may hinder local suppression strategies for this species.

Many severe mosquito-borne diseases are transmitted by the Aedes sp. mosquitoes. Control efforts have been strengthened by the implementation of novel integrated vector management techniques such as alginate hydrogel beads and appealing toxic sugar bait. These techniques help to control mosquitoes by taking advantage of their attraction to sugar. Different types of sugar that mosquitoes ingest during feeding can affect the makeup of microbiome in the midgut. Immune priming and baseline immune activity are maintained by mosquito midgut microbiome. Thus, this study is currently focusing on using microbial communities for vector control measures with a particular emphasis on how they consume various forms of sugar. Both wild and lab strain Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquito samples were reared and fed with attractive targeted sugar baits (ATSBs) infused with Chrysanthemum , mango, mix and control solutions. Then, the impact on bacterial communities was assessed by using 16S rRNA gene sequences. According to our findings, the majority of the bacterial species in mango and mix treatments belonged to the Enterobacteriaceae family. A total of 24 various bacterial species were found in Aedes mosquitoes that fed on mango ATSBs. All isolates were members of three phyla from Actinobacteria (4.16%), Firmicutes (54.17%), and Proteobacteria (41.67%). Data reveals that different species, strains and diet affect the midgut bacterial diversity in the mosquitoes. In addition to improving our knowledge concerning the way this bacterium shapes the microbial community, a thorough investigation of the prevalence of the midgut bacterial community is essential for alerting present and future mosquito and disease control initiatives. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Most mosquito surveillance programs rely on traps baited with carbon dioxide (CO2) to attract host-seeking mosquitoes. The source of CO2, traditionally dry ice or gas cylinders, poses operational challenges, especially in remote locations. CO2 production from citric acid and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) using low-cost intravenous fluid bags (‘acid traps’) was evaluated in laboratory experiments. Field trials then compared the efficacy of these acid traps with dry ice traps. Using a 2 × 2 Latin square style design, trapping locations were established at two sites in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (one urban and another peri-urban), to assess trap performance in diverse environments. The laboratory results showed CO2 production of sufficient amount and duration for overnight mosquito capture. Whilst field experiments showed that dry ice traps captured more mosquitoes (up to 59%) than acid traps, numbers were similar in the urban environment. At both sites, species composition was similar, with Culex quinquefasciatus, Aedes notoscriptus, and Aedes vigilax predominantly collected, and these are known species of pest and public health concern. Further modifications to the acid traps could further improve CO2 output and trap efficiency.

Sugar-feeding is essential to mosquitoes with both sexes that often interacting with flowering plants to acquire sugar. Alginate Sugar Baits are made up of sodium alginate (ALG) which is a safe, natural, and biodegradable polymer. The Alginate Sugar Baits are infused with sugar variants making them Attractive Sugar Baits (ASBs) as a means of providing long-term efficacy to enhance mosquito attraction. However, fundamental gaps in understanding the characteristics of ASBs and the attraction of mosquitoes towards it limits the efficacy of utilizing such bait technology. Testing of non-choice and choice assay of different group of ASBs towards Aedes aegypti to demonstrate the effectiveness of ASBs as a potential baiting tool was performed using 30 % v/v of mango, 25 % v/v of Chrysanthemum, 30 % v/v of mix and sucrose ASBs. These formulations assessed using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX), Ultraviolet-Visible-Near Infrared Spectroscopy (UV-VIS-NIR), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. Results indicated that the 30 % mango ASB achieved the highest mosquito attraction, with a mean attraction of (34.17 ± 7.94), optimal reflectance (8 %) and absorbance (3.1 units). These ASBs are recommended as highly promising candidates as an alternative for repellent insecticides, serving as baiting tools for mosquito attraction.

Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) and the pathogens they transmit represent a threat to human and animal health. Low-cost and effective surveillance methods are necessary to enable sustainable monitoring of mosquito distributions, diversity, and human interactions. This study examined the use of iNaturalist, an online, community-populated biodiversity recording database, for passive mosquito surveillance in the United Kingdom (UK) and Ireland, countries under threat from the introduction of invasive mosquitoes and emerging mosquito-borne diseases. The Mozzie Monitors UK & Ireland iNaturalist project was established to collate mosquito observations in these countries. Data were compared with existing long-term mosquito UK datasets to assess representativeness of seasonal and distribution trends in citizen scientist-recorded observations. The project collected 738 observations with the majority recorded 2020-2022. Records were primarily associated with urban areas, with the most common species Culex pipiens and Culiseta annulata significantly more likely to be observed in urban areas than other species. Analysis of images uploaded to the iNaturalist project also provided insights into human-biting behavior. Our analyses indicate that iNaturalist provides species composition, seasonal occurrence, and distribution figures consistent with existing datasets and is therefore a useful surveillance tool for recording information on human interactions with mosquitoes and monitoring species of concern.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the leading cause of human encephalitis in Asia. JEV is a vector-borne disease, mainly transmitted by Culex mosquitoes, with Ardeidae birds as maintenance hosts and pigs as amplifying hosts. Other vertebrate animal hosts have been suggested to play a role in the epidemiology of JEV. This scoping review followed PRISMA guidelines to identify species in which evidence of naturally occurring JEV infection was detected in vertebrates other than ardeid birds, pigs and people. Following systematic searches, 4372 records were screened, and data were extracted from 62 eligible studies. Direct evidence (virus, viral antigen or viral RNA) of JEV infection was identified in a variety of mammals and birds (not always identified to the species level), including bats, passerine birds (family Turdidae), livestock (cattle [Bos taurus] and a goat [Capra hircus]), carnivores (two meerkats [Suricata suricatta]), and one horse (Equus caballus). Bat families included Pteropodidae, Vespertilionidae, Rhinolophidae, Miniopteridae, Hipposideridae. Indirect evidence (antibodies) was identified in several mammalian and avian orders, as well as reported in two reptile species. However, a major limitation of the evidence of JEV infection identified in this review was diagnostic test accuracy, particularly for serological testing. Studies generally did not report diagnostic sensitivity or specificity which is critical given the potential for cross-reactivity in orthoflavivirus detection. We hypothesise that bats and passerine birds could play an underappreciated role in JEV epidemiology; however, development of diagnostic tests to differentiate JEV from other orthoflaviviruses will be essential for effective surveillance in these, as well as the companion and livestock species that could be used to evaluate JEV control measures in currently endemic regions.

Abstract Background The mosquito Culex annulirostris Skuse (Diptera: Culicidae) is an important arbovirus vector in Australasia. It is part of the Culex sitiens subgroup that also includes Cx. palpalis and Cx. sitiens. Single locus mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequencing studies suggest that Cx. annulirostris consists of a complex of at least two species. We tested this hypothesis by analysing both nuclear microsatellite data and additional mitochondrial sequence data to describe the population genetics of Cx. annulirostris through Australia, Papua New Guinea (PNG) and the Solomon Archipelago. Methods Twelve novel microsatellite markers for Cx. annulirostris were developed and used on over 500 individuals identified as Cx. annulirostris by molecular diagnostics. Ten of the 12 microsatellites then used for analysis using Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components, a Bayesian clustering software, STRUCTURE, along with estimates of Jost’s D statistic that is similar to FST but better suited to microsatellite data. Mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) DNA sequence were also generated complementing previous work and analysed for sequence diversity (Haplotype diversity, Hd and Pi, π), Tadjima’s D, and pairwise FST between populations. An allele specific molecular diagnostic with an internal control was developed. Results We confirm the existence of multiple genetically and geographically restricted populations. Within mainland Australia, our findings show that Cx. annulirostris consists of two genetically and geographically distinct populations. One population extends through northern Australia and into the south-east coast of Queensland and New South Wales (NSW). The second Australian population occurs through inland NSW, Victoria, South Australia, extending west to southern Western Australia. These two Australian populations show evidence of possible admixture in central Australia and far north Queensland. Australia’s Great Dividing Range that runs down southeast Australia presents a strong gene-flow barrier between these two populations which may be driven by climate, elevation or river basins. In PNG we find evidence of reproductive isolation between sympatric cryptic species occurring through PNG and Australia’s northern Cape York Peninsula. A PCR-based molecular diagnostic was developed to distinguish these two cryptic species. Conclusion This study adds to the growing body of work suggesting that the taxon presently known as Cx. annulirostris now appears to consist of at least two cryptic species that co-occur in northern Australia and New Guinea and can be distinguished by a ITS1 PCR diagnostic. The Solomon Islands population may also represent a distinct species but in light its geographic isolation and lack of sympatry with other species would require further study. Additionally, the mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence of population structure between geographic regions within Australia appears latitudinal and elevational driven and may suggest an additional subspecies in that hybridise where they overlap. Graphical Abstract

Although citizen science initiatives have been increasing globally, there is still a gap in understanding how they can result in sustainable benefits for citizen scientists. This article addresses dual goals of (i) collecting relevant data on potential vector mosquitoes and (ii) delivering learning outcomes among participants in a citizen science mosquito surveillance program. Mozzie Monitors uses an e-entomology approach to collect and identify mosquitoes of medical importance. This study used quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method approaches, comprised of before and after longitudinal surveys, in-depth interviews and descriptive assessment of mosquito attributes to assess participants' educational gains and data collection scalability. Results showed that mosquito abundance and diversity differed in each study location, with Aedes notoscriptus (Skuse) being the most common mosquito reported in all areas. Citizen scientists were predominantly women over 50 and highly educated. The before-and-after analysis showed that participants learned how to identify the most common mosquito species after participating in the program. They also improved their technical skills in mosquito photography, increasing the rates of identifiable photos. Finally, participating in this citizen science program resulted in behavior changes, with participants starting to look for mosquito eggs and larvae in their backyards to manage mosquito populations. The mixed methods used in this research showed increased participants' confidence, self-efficacy, and engagement throughout the trial. Overall, this study demonstrated the potential of Mozzie Monitors to contribute to the dual goals of mosquito data contribution and citizen scientists' educational outcomes for improved public health.

The geographic extent of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a zoonotic, mosquito-borne virus, increased dramatically in south-eastern Australia over the summer of 2021-2022 resulting in outbreaks in piggeries, 45 cases of human disease, and simultaneous detection of JEV by mosquito and arbovirus surveillance programs. Preliminary investigation of the landscape epidemiology of the piggery outbreaks showed that they were associated with particular landscape structure as well as intermediate ardeid species richness. However, no exploration of the ways in which individual species or species composition may couple with JEV-associated landscape composition and configuration has been undertaken and, therefore, key questions regarding the landscape epidemiology and infection ecology of JEV in Australia remain unanswered. The current study sought to interrogate how individual species presence and their functional traits were distributed across the landscape, and how these distributions aligned with the landscape structure of JEV occurrence. Inhomogeneous Poisson point process models and multivariate hierarchical models were used to investigate the landscape-level ardeid species pools and the distribution of their pool-weighted traits with respect to JEV outbreaks. The distributions of six species were strongly associated with the distribution of JEV outbreaks reported in 2022: Casmerodius albus (Ardea alba), Ardea pacifica, Botaurus poiciloptilus, Egretta novaehollandiae, Ixobrychus minutus (Ixobrychus dubius), and Nycticorax caledonicus. Some JEV-delimiting landscape features, including transient wetlands and proximity to waterways, were associated with the presence of nearly all ardeid species, while others, such as crop cultivation, habitat fragmentation, and water flow accumulation were associated with only a subset of these species. In addition, hand-wing index was associated with species presence in landscapes associated with JEV outbreaks, which may suggest the importance of dispersal capacity in ardeid community assembly in landscapes that share environmental features with JEV occurrence. This study provides a preliminary selection of target species for the development of wild waterbird JEV surveillance, while uniquely accounting for sympatry and the potential for functional modulation of environmental filtering in high-risk landscapes, despite the broad landscape scale that necessarily constrained the analysis. Nevertheless, while the results provide an actionable One Health framework with which to develop wildlife surveillance, it must be noted that they do not describe community assembly rules, nor do they provide a description of community composition at local scale. The findings advance the current understanding of the landscape epidemiology of JEV in Australia by connecting landscapes with individual species from a family of established maintenance hosts and, given the large geographic extent of the potential circulation of JEV in maintenance hosts, provides valuable evidence-based information for targeted surveillance strategies.

The effective control of Aedes mosquitoes using traditional control agents is increasingly challenging due to the presence of insecticide resistance in many populations of key mosquito vectors. An alternative strategy to insecticides is the use of toxic sugar baits, however it is limited due to short-term efficacy. Alginate-Gelatin hydrogel beads (AGHBs) may be an effective alternative by providing longer periods of mosquito attraction and control, especially of key vectors of dengue viruses such as Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Sodium alginate (ALG) and gelatin (GLN) are natural polymers, which can be a potential candidate to develop the AGHBs baits due to their biodegradability and environmental safety. Here we provide an assessment of the preparation of AGHBs optimized by varying the concentrations of ALG, GLN, and its cross-linking time (TIME). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis results in the determination of liquid bait loaded in the AGHBs. The evaluation of AGHBs' effectiveness as the potential baiting tool based on the mortality rate of mosquitoes after the bait consumption. The 100 % percent mortality of Aedes mosquitoes was obtained within 72 h of bait consumption. The field evaluation also justifies the applicability of AGHBs for outdoor applications. We conclude that the AGHBs are applicable as a baiting tool in carrying liquid bait in achieving mosquito mortality.

The widespread activity of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) reported in previously unaffected regions of eastern and southern Australia in 2022 represents the most significant local arbovirus emergency in almost 50 years. Japanese encephalitis virus is transmitted by mosquitoes and maintained in wild ardeid birds and amplified in pigs, the latter of which suffer significant reproductive losses as a result of infection. The landscape epidemiology of JEV in mainland Australia is almost entirely unknown, particularly in the eastern and southern parts of the country where the virus has not been previously documented. Although other areas with endemic JEV circulation in the Indo-Pacific region have demonstrated the importance of wild waterbird-livestock interface in agricultural-wetland mosaics, no such investigation has yet determined the composition and configuration of pathogenic landscapes for Australia. Moreover, the recent emergence in Australia has followed substantial precipitation and temperature anomalies associated with the La Niña phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation. This study investigated the landscape epidemiology of JEV outbreaks in Australian piggeries reported between January and April of 2022 to determine the influence of ardeid habitat suitability, hydrogeography, hydrology, land cover and La Niña-associated climate anomalies. Outbreaks of JEV in domestic pigs were associated with intermediate ardeid species richness, cultivated land and grassland fragmentation, waterway proximity, temporary wetlands, and hydrological flow accumulation. This study has identified the composition and configuration of landscape features that were associated with piggery outbreaks reported in 2022 in Australia. Although preliminary, these findings can inform actionable strategies for the development of new One Health JEV surveillance specific to the needs of Australia.

The terrestrial, freshwater and marine realms all provide essential ecosystem services in urban environments. However, the services provided by each realm are often considered independently, which ignores the synergies between them and risks underestimating the benefits derived collectively. Greater research collaboration across these realms, and an integrated approach to management decisions can help to support urban developments and restoration projects in maintaining or enhancing ecosystem services. The aim of this paper is to highlight the synergies and trade-offs among ecosystem services provided by each realm and to offer suggestions on how to improve current practice. We use case studies to illustrate the flow of services across realms. In our call to better integrate research and management across realms, we present a framework that provides a 6-step process for conducting collaborative research and management with an Australian perspective. Our framework considers unifying language, sharing, and understanding of desired outcomes, conducting cost-benefit analyses to minimise trade-offs, using multiple modes of communication for stakeholders, and applying research outcomes to inform regulation. It can be applied to improve collaboration among researchers, managers and planners from all realms, leading to strategic allocation of resources, increased protection of urban natural resources and improved environmental regulation with broad public support.

Citizen science mosquito surveillance has been growing in recent years due to both increasing concern about mosquito-borne disease and the increasing popularity of citizen science projects globally. Health authorities are recognising the potential importance of citizen science to expanding or enhancing traditional surveillance programs. Different programs have shown success in engaging communities to monitor species of medical importance through low-cost methods. The Mozzie Monitors project was established on iNaturalist-an open citizen science platform that allows participants to upload photos (i.e., observers) and assist identification (i.e., identifiers). This article describes the likelihood of citizen scientists submitting photos of mosquitoes, assesses user submission behaviour, and evaluates public health utility from these citizen science-derived data. From October 2018 to July 2021, the Mozzie Monitors project on iNaturalist received 2118 observations of 57 different species of mosquitoes across Australia. The number of observers in the system increased over time with more than 500 observers and 180 identifiers being active in the project since its establishment. Data showed species bias with large-bodied and colourful mosquitoes being over-represented. Analyses also indicate regional differentiation of mosquito fauna per state, seasonality of activity, and ecological information about mosquitoes. The iNaturalist citizen science platform also allows connectedness, facilitated communication and collaboration between overall users and expert entomologists, of value to medical entomology and mosquito management.

The widespread activity of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) in previously unaffected regions of eastern and southern Australia in 2022 represents the most significant local arbovirus emergency in almost 50 years. Japanese encephalitis virus is transmitted by mosquitoes and maintained in wild ardeid birds and amplified in pigs, the latter of which suffer significant reproductive losses as a result of infection. The landscape of JEV outbreak risk in mainland Australia is almost entirely unknown, particularly in the eastern and southern parts of the country where the virus has not been previously documented. Although other areas with endemic JEV circulation in the Indo-Pacific region have demonstrated the importance of wild waterbird-livestock interface in agricultural-wetland mosaics, no such investigation has yet determined the configuration of pathogenic landscapes for Australia. Moreover, the recent emergence in Australia has followed substantial precipitation and temperature anomalies associated with the La Niña phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation. This study investigated the landscape epidemiology of JEV outbreaks in Australian piggeries recorded between January and April of 2022 to determine the influence of ardeid habitat suitability, hydrogeography, hydrology, land cover and La Niña-associated climate anomalies in demarcating risk. Outbreaks of JEV in domestic pigs were associated with ardeid species richness, agricultural and riparian landscape mosaics, hydrological flow accumulation, and grasslands. This study has identified the composition and configuration of landscape features that delineated risk for piggeries during the 2022 emergence of JEV in Australia. Although preliminary, these findings can inform actionable strategies for the development of new One Health JEV surveillance specific to the needs of Australia.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) continues to cause significant numbers of human infections and fatalities despite the availability of efficacious vaccines. It is regarded as an emerging mosquito-borne pathogen with the potential of introduction into many countries. In 2022, JEV was detected in Australia on a hitherto unprecedented scale, with local transmission by indigenous mosquitoes to amplifying swine hosts and to humans. In this study, we review this recent disease activity, propose possible routes of virus movement, ecological drivers of activity, and consider possible future transmission scenarios. Measures to enhance current surveillance systems and potential strategies for health authorities to minimize future risks are discussed.