Rifampicin (RIF) remains a cornerstone of tuberculosis therapy; however, its clinical efficacy is highly dependent on achieving optimal systemic exposure, supporting the need for rapid and reliable monitoring approaches in therapeutic drug management. Conventional analytical techniques are often laboratory-bound, time-consuming, and unsuitable for decentralized or real-time applications. In this context, nanomaterial-enabled electrochemical sensing has emerged as a promising strategy for integration into biomedical microdevices, offering rapid response, low sample consumption, and compatibility with miniaturized platforms. This review provides a focused and critical evaluation of recent advances in nanomaterial-based electrochemical interfaces for RIF detection, with particular emphasis on their suitability for incorporation into portable and microfluidic device architectures. Carbon nanostructures, metal and metal-oxide nanomaterials, MXenes, metal–organic frameworks, molecularly imprinted polymers, and hybrid biosensing systems are systematically compared in terms of their structure–property-performance relationships and their ability to enhance electron-transfer kinetics, adsorption behavior, and electrocatalytic activity. Beyond analytical performance metrics such as detection limits and linear dynamic range, the review highlights key parameters governing device-level implementation, including surface stability, anti-fouling properties, reproducibility, and compatibility with complex biological matrices. Importantly, we discuss current progress toward integrating these sensing platforms into miniaturized and point-of-care systems, including screen-printed electrodes, flexible substrates, and microfluidic-assisted analytical devices. Remaining challenges-such as long-term operational stability, inter-device reproducibility, and clinical validation-are critically addressed. By bridging the gap between nanomaterial-based sensor development and biomedical microdevice engineering, this work provides a practical framework for advancing RIF detection technologies toward potential real-world diagnostic and therapeutic monitoring applications.

Cediranib (CB), a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, exhibits encouraging anticancer activity against breast, prostate, glioblastoma, and non-small cell lung cancer cells. This study used multi-spectral and computational analyses to elucidate the binding mechanism of CB to human serum albumin (HSA). The HSA fluorescence was substantially quenched upon CB binding and a static quenching mode was detected. An intermediate binding affinity was observed to govern the CB-HSA complex formation, while H-bonds, van der Waals, and hydrophobic interactions were supposed to stabilize the complex. The presence of CB in HSA solutions triggered variations in the secondary and tertiary structures of HSA as well as alterations in the microenvironment close to the protein fluorophores. The CB binding to HSA enhanced the protein's tolerance to thermal stress, and the addition of common metal ions to the reaction mixture resulted in minor deviations in the binding affinity of CB for HSA. The preferred binding pose of CB was positioned at Sudlow's site I of HSA, and the CB-HSA complex bound at site I persisted compact and stable through hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions during molecular dynamics simulations. These findings offer important insights into the binding properties of CB to HSA that might be useful for pharmaceutical applications in the future.

Although various electrochemical sensors have been reported for the determination of local anesthetic drugs, most existing platforms suffer from limited sensitivity, insufficient surface stability, or inadequate electron-transfer efficiency, particularly when applied to complex biological matrices. Moreover, the potential of hybrid polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS)-based nanostructures combined with metal oxide nano-particles for improving electroanalytical performance has not yet been thoroughly explored. In this study, a high-sensitivity electrochemical nanosensor was developed for the determination of prilocaine (PC), an amide-type local anesthetic, using a glassy carbon (GC) electrode modified with POSS-titanium dioxide (TiO2) nano-particles (Nps). The combination of modifications provided a unique electrode surface by combining the high stability of POSS with the strong adsorption properties of TiO2 Nps, thereby increasing both surface loading and adsorption capacity. To elucidate the structure of the modification combination, 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic techniques, as well as Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), X-Ray diffraction (XRD), Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) analysis techniques were used, respectively. The analytical performance of the developed nanosensor was systematically optimized using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), adsorptive stripping differential pulse voltammetry (AdSDPV), square wave voltammetry (SWV), and adsorptive stripping square wave voltammetry (AdSSWV) techniques. As a result of the optimization studies, the lowest limit of detection (LOD) was 3.66 x 10-8 M with the AdSSWV technique. DFT results corroborated the mechanism, indicating ring-centered electron donation (HOMO) and adsorption-favored N/O regions (MEP). Low LOD values were also recorded with other techniques, demonstrating the method's high sensitivity in analyte detection. In real sample analysis tests, PC recovery value in human blood samples was determined to be 98.69% using the AdSDPV technique. Despite the matrix effect, the nanosensor demonstrated high accuracy and reproducibility. The results indicate that the developed POSS-TiO2 Nps modified GC electrode sensor offers a high-performance, reliable, and good electrochemical detection platform suitable for use in biological and clinical applications.

This study presents a novel, simple, and cost-effective electrochemical method for the sensitive determination of Vandetanib (VAN), a clinically important tyrosine kinase inhibitor, using an unmodified glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The electrochemical behavior of VAN was investigated via cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) over a wide pH range, an adsorption-controlled irreversible oxidation process involving equal numbers of protons and electrons, indicating a proton-coupled electron transfer mechanism. Optimization of experimental parameters, including pH, accumulation time, and accumulation potential, demonstrated that 0.5 M H2S04 (pH 0.3) and an accumulation time of 90 seconds provided optimal analytical performance. The DPV method exhibited excellent linearity between 2×10-8 M and 1.5×10-6 M VAN concentrations, with a low detection limit of 5.58×10-9 M. The proposed approach achieved high repeatability with relative standard deviations below 1.2%. Compared to previously reported methods involving complex electrode modifications, this work emphasizes the practicality of a bare GCE platform, eliminating the need for surface modification or surfactant addition. The method’s simplicity, sensitivity, and environmental friendliness make it a promising alternative for rapid VAN quantification.

Interaction between a local anesthetic drug, articaine (ART) and human serum albumin (HSA) was investigated in the absence and presence of paracetamol (PAR) and caffeine (CAF) using spectroscopic, voltammetric, and computational techniques for the first time. The results demonstrated that increasing concentrations of ART in HSA solution led to a decrease in HSA fluorescence signal, indicating the ART-HSA complex formation via the static quenching mechanism. The binding strength of the complex was moderate (binding constant, Ka = 5.87 x 103 M- 1 in fluorescence and 6.31 x 103 M- 1 in voltammetric at 298 K). Thermodynamic analysis (Delta S = +28.32 J mol- 1 K- 1; Delta H = -30.17 kJ/mol) of the binding reaction suggested involvement of hydrophobic interactions, van der Waal's forces and hydrogen bonding in stabilizing the ART-HSA complex. Significant microenvironmental alterations near the Trp and Tyr residues of HSA consequent to the ART-HSA complex formation. ART predominantly binds to Sudlow's site I of HSA with more negative binding energy and stronger hydrophobic interactions compared to Site II. The stability of the ART-HSA complex at Site I over a 100 ns timeframe, supported by stable hydrogen bonding and compact HSA structure throughout the molecular dynamics simulations. The effect of PAR and CAF on the binding strength between ART and HSA was also examined, and presence of PAR and CAF in the reaction mixture produced significant reduction in the binding affinity of ART to HSA. These findings underscore the competitive binding between ART, PAR, and CAF, which impacts their pharmacokinetics and efficacy. This study provides valuable insights into the complex interactions between anesthetic drugs and common pharmaceuticals, potentially guiding clinical practices and drug development.

The multitargeted receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor, dovitinib (DTB) is reported to have a broad variety of pharmacological properties, which can be potentially useful in the treatment of various cancer entities. Association of DTB with the carrier protein, human serum albumin (HSA) was explored via experimental and in silico techniques. The reduction results of HSA fluorescence along with the hyperchromic effect in HSA's absorption signal observed with added DTB affirmed the DTB-HSA complex formation. Association of static quenching process for the complex was anticipated, while stabilization of the complex was asserted by a moderate binding affinity. The DTB-HSA complexation was expected to be maintained by hydrogen bonds, van der Waals and hydrophobic contacts. Variations in the protein (secondary and tertiary) conformations upon presence of DTB were verified from circular dichroism and Fourier transform infrared spectral results. Three-dimensional and synchronous fluorescence signals displayed variations in the microenvironmental make-up near protein fluorophores, consequent to the complex formation. Binding place of DTB, as detected by ligand displacement and molecular docking analyses, was found at Sudlow's site I in HSA. The results of the molecular dynamics simulations indicated that the DTB-HSA complex was stable.

This study aims to examine, for the first time, the interaction between the tyrosine kinase inhibitor cabozantinib (CAB) and human serum albumin (HSA), emphasizing the binding mechanism, affinity, and possible structural alterations by fluorescence spectroscopy. The association between CAB and HSA was predominantly explored through fluorescence spectroscopic analysis. To evaluate this interaction, a set of quenching measurements was systematically carried out by titrating increasing concentrations of CAB into a fixed concentration of HSA solution. Temperature-dependent measurements were also conducted to analyze the quenching mechanism and to calculate thermodynamic parameters. Stern-Volmer analysis, as well as double logarithmic fitting, were used to evaluate the quenching behavior and binding affinity. The progressive decrease of HSA’s native fluorescence upon incremental addition of CAB concentrations indicated the formation of the CAB-HSA complex. A noticeable reduction in Stern-Volmer quenching constants (KSV) was recorded as the temperature increased, suggesting a static quenching mechanism. Binding constants (Ka) were found to be in the order of 104 M-1, pointing to a relatively intermediate affinity between CAB and HSA, compatible with its transport in blood plasma. The spontaneity of the binding was supported by thermodynamic data, highlighting hydrophobic interactions as the principal contributor, in combination with hydrogen bonding and weak van der Waals attractions. In addition, no shifts in emission maxima and significant fluorescence quenching around tryptophan and tyrosine residues indicated microenvironmental perturbations, suggesting localized conformational changes in the protein structure upon CAB binding.

Early cancer detection is a crucial step for survival, and the label-free and sensitive detection of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), a key biomarker, is still one of the important research areas in the diagnosis of breast cancer. Here, we reported the development of novel label-free immunoand aptasensors for HER2 detection based on modified screen-printed electrodes (SPE) with the decoration of platinum and copper bimetallic-based nanosponges (Pt@Cu NSs). The surface of Pt@Cu NSs/SPE has been immobilized by HER2-specific monoclonal antibody (anti-HER2) and aptamer, separately. The analytical performances of both immunoand aptasensors with their associated HER2 antigen were investigated using the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) technique. Both sensors exhibited similar performance under optimal experimental conditions, with a nearly identical limit of detection (LOD) of 30.3 fg mL-1 and 33.3 fg mL-1 for immunoand aptasensors, respectively, in the range of 0.1-10,000 pg mL-1. The immunoand aptasensors' results were further verified by detecting spiked HER2 in commercial human serum samples, yielding satisfactory recovery results (aptasensor: 100.16-103.56 %; immunosensor: 103.88-106.40 %) with RSD values below 10 %. The immunoand aptasensors corroborated good stability, reproducibility, and selectivity as well as were found to be selective toward HER2 in the presence of various interfering agents. Our current findings demonstrate the great potential of our developed immunoand aptasensors for practical use by combining electrochemical approaches to obtain accurate disease detection with simultaneous use.

Nowadays, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is a critical biomarker and therapeutic target in breast cancer, associated with aggressive tumor behavior and poor prognosis. Therefore, its accurate detection is essential for effective diagnosis and treatment planning. In this study, we developed a novel electrochemical immunosensor platform for the sensitive detection of HER2. The sensor surface was decorated with trimetallic Au@Pt@Ag-based nanoparticles (NPs) to enhance its electrochemical properties. A sponge-like Au@Ru nanozyme was employed as a signal label to further amplify the detection signal due to its superior catalytic activity. The immunosensor was constructed by sequentially modifying a screen-printed electrode with Au@Pt@Ag NPs, primary antibody, HER2 antigen, and Au@Ru-labeled secondary antibody. The optimal experimental conditions were established, including the incubation times for antibodies, HER2, as well as the concentration of Au@Ru nanozyme. Under these optimized conditions, the immunosensor exhibited a wide linear detection range from 0.5 to 1000 pg/mL with a low detection limit of 0.15 pg/mL using amperometry as the detection technique. The analytical performance of the sensor was validated by detecting HER2 in human serum samples, achieving high recovery rates and low relative standard deviations (RSDs). Additionally, the immunosensor demonstrated excellent reproducibility and stability, with RSD values below 5 % over 15 days of storage. Selectivity tests showed minimal interference from common proteins such as human serum albumin, C-reactive protein, and Interleukin-6. These results indicates that the developed immunosensor is highly sensitive, reliable, and suitable for future clinical applications in HER2 detection.

Enzyme-linked biosensing appliances have been extensively utilized over the last two decades and have been demonstrated to be reformer methods in the quantitative and qualitative examinations of a diversity of analyte substrates over a wide range of implementations. Electroanalytical enzyme-linked biosensors are one of the major and mercantile accomplished classes of biosensors. Several supremacies that enzyme-linked biosensors ensure, such as high selectivity, specificity, and sensitivity, chances of miniaturization and portability, cost-performance, and point-of-care diagnostic testing, provide them more and more appealing for investigation focused on food safety control, clinical analysis, or several disease monitoring objectives. Integration of enzymes in the biosensors ensues in the important development of electrochemical biosensor selectivity, detection limit, sensitivity, fast response, stability, and other electroanalytical properties. In this article, it is aimed to give brief information about the enzymes, their usage immobilization techniques, and enzyme-linked electrochemical biosensors.

Early and precise diagnosis can prevent the severe effects of cancer, which is one of the leading health problems worldwide. Electrochemical (bio)sensors are at the forefront of technologies for this purpose due to their capacity to rapidly screen biomarkers, which is crucial for cancer diagnosis and health status monitoring. With the advantages of electrochemical analysis and nanomaterials' improved structural/chemical features, electrochemical biosensors offer outstanding performance for specific biomarker detection. Among different nanomaterials, silica-based nanomaterials contribute to developing enhanced (multi)functional sensing platforms. This review discusses the applications of electrochemical biosensors based on mesoporous silica nanomaterials for determining cancer biomarkers in biological fluids. Silica nanomaterials' types, synthesis methods, and properties are discussed comparatively. The current uses and developments of electrochemical biosensors and their functions in the last fifteen years are presented for practical applications in cancer biomarkers detection and monitoring to end with some concluding remarks, perspectives, and trends.

Depending on the progress of science and technology, nanomaterials can be used in health, cosmetics, food, health, environment, etc. The designs suitable for use in areas attract attention. Apart from these industrial areas, the use of nanomaterials that provide high sensitivity and selectivity in the field of biosensors is also important. Along with the unique advantages that nanomaterials bring to biosensing platforms, there are negative aspects such as complexity in synthesis methods, hazardous waste generation, and harm to human health. In today's world, where green chemistry is effective even in our daily lives, it is inevitable that nanomaterial synthesis should be carried out with a green approach. With the acceleration of the use of green nanomaterials in various fields, creating biosensor platforms with unique detection ranges that are harmless to the environment and human health has attracted the attention of researchers. The advancement of green nanotechnology, where biological pathways are used for the synthesis of nanomaterials, lowers the rate of hazardous waste generation and at the same time reduces energy consumption levels, thus supporting the constructive potential of green nanotechnology.

Today, the increasing demand for food products due to the increase in the human population causes many foodborne diseases. The cause of these diseases is foodborne pathogens that seriously affect the production, supply, and consumption processes of food. So, the detection of these pathogens that threaten human health is one of the most important problems all around the world. Among all the analytical methods and biological-based methods applied for detecting foodborne pathogens, electrochemical biosensors are a fast, reliable, and sensitive detection method. Using special strategies, such as preparing new platforms with various nanomaterials, target-specific bio-recognition agents, and molecular imprinting technologies, they are developing in parallel with technological developments and becoming a powerful alternative for foodborne pathogen detection. New strategies in electrochemical biosensors allow the development of devices that can be miniaturized, portable, and suitable for chip technology. It is predicted that the quick identification of foodborne pathogens using electrochemical biosensors in processes such as food production, supply, and quality control will make further progress day by day. In this chapter, brief information about food pathogens, electrochemical methods, and biosensors is discussed. The outlines of current developments in electrochemical biosensors for the determination of food pathogens are summarized and tabulated through the last 3 years of studies. Moreover, future perspectives on foodborne pathogen analysis by electrochemical methods are discussed.

The protection of the ecosystem is of great importance for the provision of health and better quality of life for both humans and other living things. In this context, environmental monitoring is essential to understand whether the environmental quality is getting better or worse. Therefore many different methods are frequently used for environmental monitoring. Nanomaterials are ultrasmall particles with exceptional features, and they are widely researched in many different areas such as water treatment, catalysis, oil processing, medicine, food, sensors, and energy storage. Compared to bulk materials, nanomaterials provide a higher surface/volume ratio and exhibit higher adsorption capacity. Additionally, their outstanding physical, chemical, morphological, mechanical, thermal, optical, and magnetic properties make them more attractive. The use of nanomaterials in optical or electrochemical detection methods and sample preparation significantly improves sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and reproducibility. Different nanomaterials, including carbon-based nanomaterials, metallic nanomaterials, metal–organic frameworks, conducting polymers, and quantum dots, have been used to determine pesticides, ions, antibiotics, etc., in environmental samples. However, despite their outstanding advantages, there are still challenges to the applications of nanomaterials. This chapter has compiled potential benefits, drawbacks, and future perspectives of nanomaterial-based optical, electrochemical, and sample preparation methods for environmental analysis.